Rudyard Kipling, born in India in 1865, embodied the spirit of British Imperialism during its peak. His life was a journey of incredible success and unimaginable sorrow, forever marked by the “stiff upper lip” of Victorian stoicism.
Early Years
Growing up in Bombay, Kipling was surrounded by the grandeur and diversity of the British Raj.
Girgaum Road, Bombay, India c.1895
Pydownee Street, Bombay, India c1895
Harbour with arriving mail, Bombay, India, c. 1895
Statue of Queen Victoria (Empress of India, 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901) in front of Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata (calcutta). Credit Karthiknanda
Yet, his idyllic childhood was shattered at the age of five when he and his sister were sent to a cruel boarding house in England. For six years they suffered cruelty and neglect at the hands of the evil Mrs Holloway of Lorne Lodge.
Badly-treated children have a clear notion of what they are likely to get if they betray the secrets of a prison-house before they are clear of it.Rudyard Kipling.
Relief came for one month every year when he and his sister visited their maternal Aunt in London. It was a paradise compared to Lorne Lodge.
A paradise which I verily believe saved me.Rudyard Kipling.
When at last his mother returned from India to remove the children from Lorne Lodge, he was able to tell the story.
The experience instilled in him the importance of emotional control, a trait that would remain with him throughout his life.
Around the World
After a brief stint at school, Kipling returned to India to pursue his passion for writing. By the age of 24, he had already published several successful stories and embarked on a breathtaking journey around the world.
Steamboats revolutionized international travel in the late Victorian era
Kipling left India in March 1889, traveling to San Francisco via Rangoon (a region of Myanmar), Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan.
After falling in love with a Geisha in Tokyo, he continued his journey through the United States, arriving first in San Francisco and traveling on to Portland OR, Seattle, Vancouver, Alberta, Yellowstone National Park, Salt Lake City, Omaha, Chicago, Beaver PA, Niagara Falls, Toronto, Washington D. C., New York, and Boston.
He stopped along the way to visit Mark Twain, arriving unannounced, but being fortunate enough to find Mr Twain at home and happy to put the world to rights over a few whiskeys.
‘Drop by any time’. Mark Twain pondering the world.
Travelling inspired Kipling’s boundless imagination and laid the foundation for his future literary achievements.
Bliss and Tragedy
In Vermont, Kipling found his haven, building a home he called “Bliss Cottage.” Here, surrounded by his wife and daughters, he penned his most beloved works, including the Jungle Books. However, tragedy struck when his young daughter, Josephine, passed away from pneumonia.
This devastating loss left a permanent scar on Kipling’s soul, forcing him to confront the limitations of the “stiff upper lip.”
Poet of the Empire
As Kipling’s fame grew, so did his association with British Imperialism. He became known as the “Poet of the Empire,” writing poems like “The White Man’s Burden” that reflected the ideals and anxieties of the time. His unwavering support for the British cause during the Boer War further cemented this image.
Take up the White Man’s burden—
Send forth the best ye breed—
Go, bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives’ need;
To wait, in heavy harness,
On fluttered folk and wild—
Your new-caught sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child.Rudyard Kipling.
Dreams and Nightmares
In 1902, Kipling purchased a 17th-century mansion called Bateman’s, a place he cherished for its peace and beauty. Here, he continued to write prolifically, achieving the pinnacle of his career.
Bateman’s. Credit Tony Grist
However, tragedy struck once again with the loss of his son, John, in the First World War. This profound loss left Kipling heartbroken and disillusioned.
John Kipling, 1915
The Scars of War
During the war, Kipling used his powerful pen to write propaganda for the British government.
He held a particularly strong contempt for any man who reneged on his duty to serve his country, calling them outcasts and a disgrace to their family’s name.
What of his family, and, above all, what of his descendants, when the books have been closed and the last balance struck of sacrifice and sorrow in every hamlet, village, parish, suburb, city, shire, district, province, and Dominion throughout the Empire?Rudyard Kipling.
Troops going “over the top”, i.e. emerging from their trenches and charging into “no man’s land” towards enemy lines, often leading to massive casualties.
He viewed the war as a battle between good and evil, civilization and barbarity.
There was no crime, no cruelty, no abomination that the mind of men can conceive of which the German has not perpetrated, is not perpetrating, and will not perpetrate if he is allowed to go on…Today, there are only two divisions in the world…human beings and Germans.Rudyard Kipling.
However, the loss of his son exposed the hollowness of jingoism and forced him to confront the true cost of war.
If any question why we died
Tell them, because our fathers lied.Rudyard Kipling.
“My Boy Jack” by Rudyard Kipling… (Click to View)
“Have you news of my boy Jack?” Not this tide. “When d’you think that he’ll come back?” Not with this wind blowing, and this tide.
“Has any one else had word of him?” Not this tide. For what is sunk will hardly swim, Not with this wind blowing, and this tide.
“Oh, dear, what comfort can I find?” None this tide, Nor any tide, Except he did not shame his kind — Not even with that wind blowing, and that tide.
Then hold your head up all the more, This tide, And every tide; Because he was the son you bore, And gave to that wind blowing and that tide!
The Stiff Upper Lip and Its Limits
Kipling’s life was a testament to the complexities of the “stiff upper lip.” While it undoubtedly helped him navigate the trials of his life, it also prevented him from fully expressing his grief and reconciling with his losses. However, his poems like “If—” continue to inspire generations with their message of courage and resilience, even in the face of unimaginable hardship.
“If” by Rudyard Kipling… (click to view)
If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster and treat those two impostors just the same If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you; If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, But make allowance for their doubting too; If you can wait and not be tired by waiting, Or, being lied about, don’t deal in lies, Or, being hated, don’t give way to hating, And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise;
If you can dream—and not make dreams your master; If you can think—and not make thoughts your aim; If you can meet with triumph and disaster And treat those two impostors just the same; If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools, Or watch the things you gave your life to broken, And stoop and build ‘em up with wornout tools;
If you can make one heap of all your winnings And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, And lose, and start again at your beginnings And never breathe a word about your loss; If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone, And so hold on when there is nothing in you Except the Will which says to them: “Hold on”;
If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, Or walk with kings—nor lose the common touch; If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you; If all men count with you, but none too much; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds’ worth of distance run— Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it, And—which is more—you’ll be a Man, my son!
A Legacy of Triumph and Tragedy
Rudyard Kipling was a man of contradictions: a champion of empire and a critic of its injustices, a master storyteller and a grieving father. His life and work serve as a reminder of the human capacity for both extraordinary achievements and profound suffering. Through his words, he continues to challenge us to confront the complexities of history, the limitations of stoicism, and the enduring power of love and loss.
Attracting enormous crowds, by the late 1800s, the Longchamp Racecourse in the Bois de Boulogne in Paris had become one of the most fashionable public venues in France.
Spectating at the races was an immensely popular and socially prestigious pastime.
A place to see and be seen, Longchamp was like a giant stage to vaunt one’s social position.
Attended by Emperor Napoleon III and his wife Eugénie, who sailed down the Seine River on their private yacht to catch the third race, Longchamp Racecourse opened to the public on Sunday, April 27, 1857.
Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie
And it wouldn’t only be French Royalty who loved Longchamps—King Edward VII of Great Britain attended too.
The King’s carriage leaving Longchamps with French Prime Minister Loubet and British King Edward VII, 1903.
Enclosures were reserved for aristocrats and the well-connected and ladies were required to be escorted by a gentleman in order to enter.
The Races At Longchamp In 1874 by Pierre Gavarni (1846 – 1932)
But grabbing the spotlight was a new class of celebrity: the demimonde.
Supported by wealthy lovers, these were women on the fringes of respectable society.
The Races at Longchamp by Jean-Louis Forain, 1891
Arriving alone, demimondaine were forbidden access to the enclosures but were as much of a spectacle as the races themselves.
Mixing with society women, they often shared the same couturier but appeared a little more chic.
Attending the Longchamp races as the mistress of wealthy textile heir Étienne Balsan was a young Gabrielle “Coco” Chanel.
Although she didn’t quite fit the mold of a typical demimondaine, Gabrielle appeared in the loose, simple dress that would later influence an entire generation of “flappers” during the Roaring Twenties.
Gabrielle ‘Coco’ Chanel
Paris had become the fashion capital of the world and it wasn’t long before designers realized that Longchamp was a goldmine.
Fashion houses outfitted models with their finest clothes, sending them to the races to show off the latest styles.
Ladies at the Hippodrome de Longchamp, Paris 1908
Join us as we travel back in time to the Longchamp Races from 1907 to 1935—a time of elegance and flamboyance that may never be repeated.
Born Victoria Ka’iulani on October 16, 1875, the Crown Princess and heir to the throne of the Kingdom of Hawaii was known throughout the world for her intelligence and determination to preserve the Hawaiian monarchy.
Named after Queen Victoria and her maternal aunt Anna Ka’iulani who died young, Princess Ka’iulani’s life, spirit, and legacy are a testament to her love of the Hawaiian people in their hour of need.
Ka ‘iu lani means “the highest point of heaven” or “the royal sacred one” in the Hawaiian language.
Kaiulani, approximately six years old seated holding hat with backdrop of Diamond Head & palm trees in a photo studio
Ka’iulani’s parents, c. 1870
Descended from the first cousin of Kamehameha the Great, the founder and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Ka’iulani’s mother was known as Likelike, the sister of the last two ruling monarchs, and her father was Scottish businessman Archibald Scott Cleghorn.
A marriage across cultures does not always run smoothly and Princess Ka’iulani’s parents struggled.
Expecting to be the master of the household, Cleghorn’s staunch Victorian male chauvinism clashed with the Hawaiian nobility’s belief, regardless of gender, that they should be the ones to rule over others.
You always blame me in everything and I am getting tired of it. I will have to kill myself then you won’t have me to growl at all the time. I think we are better separated…as you don’t love me and I don’t love you so I will simply say, “God bless the good”Likelike
Ka’iulani’s parents, Archibald Cleghorn and Likelike
Archibald Cleghorn (seated) with family and grandchildren. Princess Ka’iulani sits to the right of Cleghorn, c. 1885
Imperious and quick-tempered, but vivacious and well-liked, Likelike earned a reputation as a kind, gracious hostess.
When Ka’iulani was just 11 years old, Likelike fell ill and never recovered.
It is said that a large school of bright red fish—an omen of death in her family—massed close to shore and that Likelike predicted her daughter would never marry and never become Queen.
Princess Likelike in a formal portrait, taken by James J. Williams, 1880s
Because Princess Ka’iulani was second in line to the throne after her elderly and childless aunt, the young girl was expected to eventually become Queen.
The reigning monarchs, King Kalākaua and Queen Kapi’olani, talked with Cleghorn and the Princess about preparing her for the role with a British education.
Princess Kaiulani in 1889, age 14
Sent to Northamptonshire, England in 1889 at the age of 13, Ka’iulani was given a private education at Great Harrowden Hall.
Excelling in her studies of Latin, Literature, Mathematics, and History, she also took classes in French and German and lessons in tennis and cricket.
Great Harrowden hall, Northamptonshire. Credit M J Richardson
Growing up knowing the landscape painter Joseph Dwight Strong from her uncle’s court, and Isobel Strong, a lady in waiting under her mother, she showed an early talent for art and took several trips to Scotland and France to study.
‘Poppies’, an oil on canvas painting by Princess Ka’iulani, 1890
Isobel was the stepdaughter of Scottish novelist Robert Louis Stevenson, of “Treasure Island” fame.
The two became good friends and he called her “the island rose” in a poem he wrote in her autograph book.
Princess Ka’iulani at 17 as she attended school at the prestigious Great Harrowden Hall in Northamptonshire
Princess Ka’iulani wearing a hatband bearing the name of an Orlando-class armored cruiser captained by a family friend, Sir William Wiseman HMS Immortalité
Kaiulani in white gown and hat, photograph by J. J. Williams
Moving to Brighton in 1892, it felt like a fresh start for Princess Ka’iulani who continued to study in England for the next four years, despite being told she would only be there for one.
Chaperoned and tutored by a Mrs. Rooke who set up a curriculum including German, French and English, the resort by the sea pleased the princess, renewing her enthusiasm.
Arranging for her to have an audience with Queen Victoria as part of a trip around Europe, her Hawaiin overseers had to suddenly cancel all plans in January of 1893.
In a short telegram, she learned that Hawaii had been overthrown.
‘Queen Deposed’, ‘Monarchy Abrogated’, ‘Break News to Princess’.
To honor the name bestowed by Stevenson, she had to summon the spirit of the “island rose” – its thorns as sharp as defiance, its bloom undying in the face of adversity.
Refusing to stand idly by while the home that she loved was swept from under her, she gave a statement to the English press:
Four years ago, at the request of Mr. Thurston, then a Hawaiian Cabinet Minister, I was sent away to England to be educated privately and fitted to the position which by the constitution of Hawaii I was to inherit. For all these years, I have patiently and in exile striven to fit myself for my return this year to my native country. I am now told that Mr. Thurston will be in Washington asking you to take away my flag and my throne. No one tells me even this officially. Have I done anything wrong that this wrong should be done to me and my people? I am coming to Washington to plead for my throne, my nation and my flag. Will not the great American people hear me?
Princess Kaiulani of Hawaii, 1890s
Traveling to the United States to fight against what she saw as a terrible injustice, she gave this speech on her arrival:
Seventy years ago, Christian America sent over Christian men and women to give religion and civilization to Hawaii. Today, three of the sons of those missionaries are at your capitol asking you to undo their father’s work. Who sent them? Who gave them the authority to break the Constitution which they swore they would uphold? Today, I, a poor weak girl with not one of my people with me and all these ‘Hawaiian’ statesmen against me, have strength to stand up for the rights of my people. Even now I can hear their wail in my heart and it gives me strength and courage and I am strong – strong in the faith of God, strong in the knowledge that I am right, strong in the strength of seventy million people who in this free land will hear my cry and will refuse to let their flag cover dishonor to mine!
Despite pleas to U.S. President Grover Cleveland, who brought her plight before Congress, her efforts could not prevent eventual annexation.
Treating Ka’iulani with contempt, the pro-annexation press referred to her in print as a half-breed, calling her “dusky”, although she was saved from the blatantly racist treatment repeatedly given her Aunt, the Queen of Hawaii.
Typical of the time, “positive” accounts of the Princess’ appearance often tried to emphasize what was thought to be “white” about her.
Occasionally, the British half from her father, Archibald Cleghorn, was also disparaged by American writers fearing Great Britain was a rival for possession of Hawaii.
Returning to Europe to finish her education, she received further tragic news that her childhood friend, Robert Louis Stevenson had died and that a new Republic of Hawaii had been established in her absence.
Learning that her half-sister, Annie Cleghorn, and later her English guardian, Theophilus Harris Davies, had both died, a great sadness overwhelmed her and her health started to decline.
Arriving back in Hawaii in 1897, she thought the warmer climate would help her recover, but she continued to deteriorate.
Kaiulani in San Francisco, 1897
Even the new house her father had built for her couldn’t lift her spirits as she struggled to readjust to the tropical climate of the Hawaiian islands.
Princess Kaiulani’s residence at Ainahau with peacocks on the lawn. The new house was constructed by Archibald Scott Cleghorn for his daughter’s return from Europe in 1897
Continuing to make public appearances at the urging of her father, she became visibly drawn and emotionally exhausted.
Princess Kaiulani standing on top of steps on the porch of her house at Āinahau; wearing the holoku and a lei
At least there was something to look forward to—the announcement of her engagement to Prince David Kawānanakoa of Hawaii.
The “Island Rose,” heir to the throne and their symbol of resistance, would unite with a prince known for his intelligence and dedication to their land. While shadows of annexation loomed, this union ignited a glimmer of hope for a future rooted in their heritage, where their beloved princess, blooming once more, might guide them through uncertain waters.
Princess Kaiulani seated wearing dress with embroidered bodice for a formal picture, 1897
Queen Liliuokalani wearing black in mourning over the annexation of Hawaii
The day Hawaii was annexed as a territory of the United States on August 12, 1898, citizen Ka’iulani and her aunt, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii, wore funeral attire to protest what they considered an illegal transaction.
One of the last public appearances of Victoria Ka’iulani was at a party thrown for U.S. Annexation Commissioners the following October.
It was bad enough to lose the throne but infinitely worse to have the flag go down…Victoria Ka'iulani
The luau or banquet at Āinahau for the U.S. Annexation Commissioners, hosted by Princess Kaiulani who is looking towards camera on the left side of the photo. Leslie’s Weekly October 20, 1898
Riding in the mountains of Hawaii Island in late 1898, Ka’iulani was caught in a storm and came down with a fever and pneumonia.
She died on March 6, 1899 at the age of 23 of inflammatory rheumatism.
Just as her mother had foretold, Ka’iulani wouldn’t get married and would never become Queen.
Princess Kaiulani of Hawaii, 1899
Princess Ka’iulani loved peacocks.
Growing up enjoying the company of a flock originally belonging to her mother, she is sometimes called the “Peacock Princess”.
During the Victorian Era, advances in technology and distribution saw fashion change from an exclusive privilege of the wealthy elites to something that could be enjoyed by ordinary people.
The Industrial Revolution inspired a flowering of creativity in architecture, literature, and decorative and visual arts, all playing a part in influencing the latest fashions.
Changing attitudes to traditional gender roles and the rising middle class meant that by the late Victorian Era, a new age of mass consumerism had begun.
Unlike earlier centuries, when it was commonplace for women to help with the family business, Victorians thought a woman’s place was in the home.
1885 Fashion plate
Victorian fashion wasn’t utilitarian, it was an expression of position in society.
1888 Fashion Plate
The upper class wore clothes adorned with embroideries and trims; the middle class, less extravagant; and the working class, whatever they could afford.
Depicted in this painting is a middle-class woman showing off her newly purchased bonnet at her sister’s modest home.
The New Bonnet by Eastman Johnson, 1876
Casting off the shackles of crinolines of the 1850s and 1860s, the late Victorian era saw several innovations to bring more practicality and mobility to fashion whilst maintaining the volume of fabric.
Introduced in the late 1860s, the bustle was a framework used to expand and support the fullness of a woman’s dress at the back, leaving the front and sides flatter for ease of movement.
Reaching its greatest extension by the mid-1880s, it was popularly boasted that the cantilevers of bustles could support an entire tea service.
1884-86. Dinner Dress. American. Silk. metmuseum
With women becoming more involved in activities outside the home, fashion designers made changes to suit.
Skirts were given more ground clearance and trains were made simpler, stronger and dragged less on the ground while keeping the same overall form.
1885 Walking Dress. French. House of Worth. Silk, glass. metmuseum
Abandoned by the 1890s, the bustle evolved into skirts with a much more subtle flow from the wearer’s thin corsetted waist.
Necklines were high, while sleeve size increased.
1892 Dress. American. Silk, cotton
Becoming bell-shaped, dresses were made to fit tighter around the hip area.
1892 Dress. American. Silk, cotton
While sleeves and bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, size would increase considerably.
1890 Dress. American. Silk, linen
Beginning in the mid-1890s, exaggerated “leg o’mutton” sleeves grew in size until disappearing in about 1906.
1895 Afternoon jacket. French. Silk, jet, beads
1896 Wedding dress. House of Worth. Silk, pearl. Credit metmuseum
1895 Dress. French. Silk
Skirts started to take on a graceful, curved, “A-line silhouette”.
A glittering extravaganza, the neoclassical motifs in the below dress add a texture and lighting effect to stand out at a formal ball.
1890 Evening ensemble. American. Silk. metmuseum
Changing attitudes about acceptable activities for women also made sportswear popular, particularly for bicycling and tennis.
Bicycling; The Ladies of the Wheel by François Courboin, 1896
A june Afternoon by A. B. Frost, 1898
Le Chalet du Cycle au Bois de Boulogne by Jean-Georges Béraud, 1900
A Rally by Sir John Lavery, R.A., 1885
Although introduced much earlier, the riding habit became more practical, with a much simpler, more formal appearance.
Void of embellishments, it was made of tough woolen fabric in a single dark colour and worn with matching hat and veil.
1890 Three-piece Riding Habit. Wool twill, full finish
The Ride by Pierre Auguste Renoir
Crucial to a respectable appearance were hats and gloves—to be seen bareheaded was simply improper.
1899 Millinery Print. France
Dozens of fanciful designs provided women with almost endless choice.
Fashion plate showing three bust portraits of Jane Harding, Baronne de Carlsberg, and Suzanne, actresses at the Gymnase theater, Paris, wearing hats designed by Madame Carlier
Women who wanted a more modest appearance often preferred bonnets but they became associated with a matronly appearance.
The Summer Bonnet by Pierre Carrier-Belleuse, 1893
Straw hats were essential summer wear for outdoor activities like croquet.
1890 Hat. American. Leghorn straw, silk chiffon
The Croquet Party by Sir John Lavery, R.A., 1890
The widening of hats towards the end of the 19th century hinted at the enormous hats that were to follow during the Edwardian era.
A Portrait of a Lady in a Black Hat with a Bouquet of Flowers in her Arms by Edouard Bisson, 1895
The late 1890s returned to the tighter sleeves often with small puffs or ruffles capping the shoulder but fitted to the wrist.
1897 Two-piece dress. House of Rouff. Silk twill and silk cut velvet on twill foundation
Indispensable accessories for the Victorian lady, parasols of the late Victorian era were exuberant and lace-covered with extremely fine handle detail.
Here, the bright colours indicative of the French touch on the left contrast with the black parasol for mourning.
1892 Pair of Woman’s Bar Shoes (Wedding). Suede, sueded leather, silk gauze, silk satin
1895 Women’s Wedding Boots. Kid leather with sueded leather and pearls
Those of the upper class who were invited to attend the royal courts of Europe would wear something altogether more extravagant and reminiscent of the 18th century.
As the wife of Washington Augustus Roebling, the chief engineer of the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City, Emily Warren Roebling ran the day-to-day supervision of the project for a period of fourteen years after husband became ill.
She wore this gown for her formal presentation to Queen Victoria in 1896.
Presentation at court was a special event for American women of Roebling’s social status and court protocol dictated the attire.
Lavishly embroidered, the sumptuous textiles and long train are characteristics of a formal gown appropriate for the occasion.
Originally intended to be worn at home for afternoon tea with family and friends, by the late 1900s, tea gowns were worn through the evening for dinner and other events.
Although just as elegant as formal wear, tea gowns were worn without corsets or assistance from a maid.
Comfortable and relaxing, they would be harbingers of things to come.
1900 Tea gown. French. House of Worth. metmuseum
By the close of the Victorian era, women were liberated from tight-laced corsets, restrictive layers of crinolined or bustled fabric, and society’s expectation of a woman’s role.
1891 Corset. French. Silk. metmuseum
There was a new woman in town and she was more confident, self-assured, and ready to meet her true potential than ever before.
No longer were women seen as either “fragile” or “voluptuous” as portrayed in earlier decades, but athletic, emancipated, and ready to enter the workforce.
Gibson Girls in beach attire by Charles Dana Gibson, 1898
She was the Gibson Girl, and she would fight for the right to vote in the 20th century.
First published in 1860 by Florence Hartley and now available for free in the public domain, The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette, and Manual of Politeness provides full directions for correct manners, deportment, and conversation that are as relevant today as they were 150 years ago.
Contains Amazon affiliate links.
Here are 8 timeless nuggets of advice from a Victorian lady that will help you make more friends, earn more respect, and increase your social currency.
1. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you
politeness is goodness of heart put into daily practice; there can be no true politeness without kindness, purity, singleness of heart, and sensibility.
Florence Hartley warned people against believing that politeness was merely a façade to hide the truth.
She explained that extending courtesy to everyone takes effort and willpower.
In other words, it isn’t easy, but it is worth the effort.
Do’s and don’ts from Florence Hartley:
Do try to set people at ease.
Do practice self-sacrificing, friendly, and unselfish behavior—be genuinely, in word and deed, polite.
Don’t say things in public that may hurt others’ feelings.
Don’t make others feel uncomfortable by putting your own convenience first.
Politeness is a genuine desire to show neighborly love. Without a good heart, politeness is hypocritical and deceitful.
True politeness is the language of a good heart, and those possessing that heart will never, under any circumstances, be rude.
2. Be a Good Listener
Conversation by Mihaly Munkacsy – 1881
The art of conversation consists in the exercise of two fine qualities. You must originate, and you must sympathize; you must possess at the same time the habit of communicating and of listening attentively. The union is rare but irresistible.
Unless you’re with friends, focus your attention squarely on the person you’re conversing with.
Show genuine interest in what the other person is saying.
Do not be distracted by anything said in another group.
Remember, it takes two to make a conversation, so don’t steal the spotlight. Give the other person an opportunity to speak, but avoid silence, or answering in monosyllables.
If your companion relates an incident or tells a story, don’t interrupt with questions part way through—even if you don’t understand something. Wait until she’s finished, and then ask questions.
There is nothing more annoying than being interrupted. Never break in upon another conversation. Wait until the conversation is finished before addressing the person you wanted to speak to.
3. Rudeness repels. Courtesy attracts.
I am not amused. Well … maybe just a little.
Never meet rudeness in others by being rude yourself; even the most impolite will feel more shame by your courtesy, than by attempting to respond in kind.
Politeness forbids any display of resentment.
A favor becomes twice as valuable if granted with courtesy, and the pain of a refusal is softened when expressed with polite regret.
Never by word or action notice the defects of another; always be charitable.
Courtesy is genuine when delivered from the heart.
The polished surface throws back the arrow.
True politeness is being polite at all times, and under all circumstances.
4. Put Your Audience First
People should not talk to please themselves, but to please those who hear them. This helps the speaker ask themselves some important questions:
Is what I’m saying worth hearing?
Is there sufficient wit or sense in what I’m about to say?
Am I adapting my conversation appropriately for the time, place, and audience?
Do’s and Don’ts from Florence Hartley:
Do take care in conversation to avoid topics that might be painful for your companion to hear.
Do turn to another subject as quickly as possible if you perceive you have caused anxiety for your friend.
Don’t hurt the feelings of another for the sake of appearing witty or smart.
Don’t try to impress people with your knowledge, but listen as well as talk, and modestly follow their lead.
Avoid affectation; it is the sure test of a deceitful, vulgar mind. The best cure is to try to have those virtues which you would affect, and then they will appear naturally.
5. Do not criticize or correct anyone
Fair Critics by Charles Courtney Curran – 1887
Florence Hartley strongly advises against correcting others on mispronounced words or grammatical errors that might arise during a conversation.
If you must correct someone, speak to them in private—never in public—and be gentle and kind with how you phrase your critique.
Don’t watch for faults in people, waiting for an opportunity to show your superior wisdom. Let modesty and kind feeling be your guide.
If your companion uses words or expressions which you do not understand, do not feign knowledge or be ashamed of your ignorance, but frankly ask for an explanation.
If you can’t remember names involved in relating an incident, it’s better to avoid the story altogether.
Don’t use substitutes for proper names or places and never phrases like “What-d-ya call it”, “Thingummy”, “What’s his name”.
Do not complete sentences for anyone or anticipate the punchline of a joke or anecdote. Whilst you may have heard the story before, it may be new to others, so let the storyteller finish in their own words.
Be careful, when traveling, not to criticize the native city or country of others by trying to prove how your home is better.
Never discredit an absent friend. It is the height of rudeness. If you put someone down whom others admire, you will most likely be viewed as envious and it will be your own character that comes into question, not the person you are criticizing.
6. Honor the confidentiality of conversations
A Little Tea and Gossip by Robert Payton Reid – 1887
Florence Hartley goes to great lengths to remind us that what people tell us should be assumed to be in confidence.
We should avoid the temptation to tell others what may seem like irresistibly juicy gossip. This is perhaps one of the most difficult challenges given the ease with which we can pass on information today.
But if we abide by it, we are more likely to earn others’ respect and make long-lasting, genuine friendships.
Amongst well-bred persons, every conversation is considered in a measure confidential. A lady or gentleman tacitly confides in you when he (or she) tells you an incident which may cause trouble if repeated, and you violate a confidence as much in such a repetition, as if you were bound over to secrecy. Remember this.
7. The Best Way to Win an Argument is to Avoid One
Avoid argument; it is not a conversation, and frequently leads to ill feeling.
If you are unfortunately drawn into an argument, keep your temper under control, and if you find your adversary is getting agitated, try to introduce a different topic.
The Argument by Albert Beck Wenzell
8. Always be learning.
Read widely and stay up to date on current events.
To be able to converse really well, you must read much, treasure in your memory the pearls of what you read; you must have a quick comprehension, observe passing events, and listen attentively whenever there is any opportunity of acquiring knowledge. A quick tact is necessary, too, in conversation.
In 1851, Great Britain stood at the very pinnacle of industrial and cultural leadership of the world.
But running in parallel was an undercurrent of class inequality, a fear of foreigners, and a contempt for internationalism.
Against this backdrop, Queen Victoria’s husband, Prince Albert organized the first world’s fair as a means to unite nations and encourage economic growth through international trade.
The first of many to come, the Great Exhibition was the symbol of Victorian progress and modernization.
Here are 10 fascinating facts about the Great Exhibition of 1851.
1. The Great Exhibition was a showcase for British pride
Although the Great Exhibition was a platform for countries from around the world to display their own achievements, Britain’s primary concern was to promote its own superiority.
British exhibits held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, machinery, or textiles.
It was thought foreign visitors would look positively upon British accomplishments, customs, and institutions—learning more in the six months during the exhibition than the prior thirty-six years since the fall of Napoleon.
The Opening of the Great Exhibition by Queen Victoria on 1 May 1851 by Henry Courtney Selous, 1852
Great Britain also wanted to instill optimism and the hope for a better future.
Following two difficult decades of political and social upheaval in Europe, Great Britain hoped to convey that technology—particularly its own—was the key to a better future.
Despite being an advocate for internationalism, Prince Albert’s main objective was predominantly a national one—for Great Britain to make clear to the world its role as industrial leader.
Even so, some saw the rise of a new industrial power—one that would threaten Britain’s dominance in years to come.
With the industrial revolution well underway in the United States, the Great Exhibition was an opportunity for the former British colony to show its machines, products, and agricultural wealth on the world stage.
Unavoidably compared to Great Britain, many looked favorably on the United States’ offerings.
2. The Great Exhibition was a symbol of the Victorian Age
From the 1850’s onward, the term “Victorianism” became popular for describing the strength, bullish superiority, and pride of an ever-improving Britain.
Technology and moving machinery proved popular, as did working exhibits like the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth.
Drawing attention from the curious-minded were scientific instruments, the like of which most people had never seen before, including electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, as well as musical, horological, and surgical instruments.
Queen Victoria previewed the exhibition the day before the official opening and wrote in her journal “We saw beautiful china from Minton’s factory and beautiful designs”.
The combination of glazed and decorated bone china with unglazed Parian figures was praised by the Great Exhibition jury for its ‘original design, high degree of beauty and harmony of effect’.
Queen Victoria purchased a 116 piece ‘Victoria pierced’ dessert service in bleu celeste at the Great Exhibition.
She was overwhelmed by the spectacular service with allegorical figure supports modelled by Pierre-Emile Jeannest.
3. The Crystal Palace was purpose-built to house the Great Exhibition
Drawing on his experience building greenhouses for the Duke of Devonshire, architect Joseph Paxton designed the largest greenhouse in the world—so spacious was its interior that it fully enclosed some of Hyde Park’s own trees.
The Crystal Palace was an enormous success, considered an architectural marvel, but also an engineering triumph that reflected the importance of the Exhibition itself.
The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park for Grand International Exhibition of 1851
William Makepeace Thackeray (1811 – 1863)
In the lead-up to the momentous Great Exhibition of 1851, William Makepeace Thackeray’s “May-Day Ode” appeared in The Times, its verses echoing through London’s streets like a triumphant fanfare. Published just one day prior to the opening ceremony, the poem served as more than just an ode to architectural innovation and colonial might.
As though ’twere by a wizard’s rod As blazing arch of lucid glass Leaps like a fountain from the grass To meet the sun.
Thackeray’s lyrical brushstrokes painted the Crystal Palace not just as a testament to human ingenuity, but as a sacred space touched by the divine, bathed in the ethereal light of God’s grace. This literary offering stood as a potent symbol of Britain’s ambition, showcasing not only its industrial prowess and imperial reach, but also its enduring cultural and artistic influence. Open entire poem in a popup window:
May-Day Ode
Lasting six months, the average daily attendance at the exhibition was 42,831, with a peak attendance of 109,915 on 7 October.
One third of the entire population of Britain visited the Great Exhibition.
Whilst the western half of the building was occupied with exhibits by Great Britain and her colonies and dependencies, the eastern half was filled with foreign exhibits, with their names inscribed on banners suspended over the various divisions.
5. Numerous Victorian A-list celebrities visited the Great Exhibition
Attending the Great Exhibition were many notable celebrities of the time, including Charles Darwin, Samuel Colt, members of the Orléanist Royal Family and the writers Charlotte Brontë, Charles Dickens, Lewis Carroll, George Eliot and Alfred Tennyson.
Victorian A-list celebrities: Charles Darwin, George Eliot, Charlotte Bronte, Lewis Carroll, Charles Dickens, Alfred Lord Tennyson
Charlotte Brontë described her visit:
Yesterday I went for the second time to the Crystal Palace. We remained in it about three hours, and I must say I was more struck with it on this occasion than at my first visit. It is a wonderful place …
Read more …
… vast, strange, new and impossible to describe. Its grandeur does not consist in one thing, but in the unique assemblage of all things. Whatever human industry has created you find there, from the great compartments filled with railway engines and boilers, with mill machinery in full work, with splendid carriages of all kinds, with harness of every description, to the glass-covered and velvet-spread stands loaded with the most gorgeous work of the goldsmith and silversmith, and the carefully guarded caskets full of real diamonds and pearls worth hundreds of thousands of pounds. It may be called a bazaar or a fair, but it is such a bazaar or fair as Eastern genii might have created. It seems as if only magic could have gathered this mass of wealth from all the ends of the earth – as if none but supernatural hands could have arranged it this, with such a blaze and contrast of colours and marvellous power of effect. The multitude filling the great aisles seems ruled and subdued by some invisible influence. Amongst the thirty thousand souls that peopled it the day I was there not one loud noise was to be heard, not one irregular movement seen; the living tide rolls on quietly, with a deep hum like the sea heard from the distance.
6. The Great Exhibition broke through class barriers
Ever present in Victorian society was the nagging guilt that this age of individualism, capitalism, and overwhelming self-confidence could not be embraced by all.
Crushing poverty ran concurrent with enormous wealth.
But Prince Albert was not oblivious to the plight of the poor and was determined to make the Great Exhibition accessible to all.
Ticket prices came down dramatically as the exhibition progressed—in today’s equivalent, prices varied from £311 for a season ticket to about £5 for one day.
Thus even the working classes could afford to attend —four and half million of the cheapest day tickets were sold.
A rank in which no aristocratic distinctions were observed from the doors of the Crystal Palace to the very centre of the Metropolis. The proudest equipage of the peer was obliged to fall in behind the humblest fly or the ugliest Henson; there being no privileged order but the order of arrival.Punch, vol.1, 1851, 190.
7. The world’s largest diamond had its own exhibit
The Koh-i-Noor, meaning the “Mountain of Light,” was the world’s largest known diamond in 1851.
One of the most popular attractions of the India exhibit, it was acquired in 1850 as part of the Lahore Treaty.
Dazzling and bewildering, the prismatically separated light of the Koh-i-Noor diamond was a metaphor for the Crystal Palace as a whole.
The eye is completely dazzled by the rich variety of hues which burst upon it on every side.Art Journal Illustrated Catalogue, 1851.
Originally thought to weigh as much as 793 carats, the earliest recorded weight was 186 carats, from which Prince Albert ordered it cut down to 105.6 carats so as to give the much brighter, oval-cut appearance preferred by Victorians—and fit for his Queen.
Today, the Koh-i-Noor diamond is set into The Queen Mother’s Crown and housed in the Tower of London.
The Koh-i-Noor Diamond ‘mountain of light’. Credit Ji Ruan, flickr
8. The Great Exhibition was a great success, but was not without controversy
Just as today, there were naysayers who thought the Great Exhibition would be a flop.
Some people feared that in the face of grinding poverty, the building would be gutted by a revolutionary mob.
The folly and absurdity of the Queen in allowing this trumpery must strike every sensible and well-thinking mind, and I am astonished the ministers themselves do not insist on her at least going to Osborne during the Exhibition, as no human being can possibly answer for what may occur on the occasion. The idea … must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman. But it seems everything is conspiring to lower us in the eyes of Europe.King Ernest Augustus I of Hanover
But the Great Exhibition of 1851 demonstrated the wisdom of internationalism at a time of widespread isolationism in Europe.
Its success inspired Napoleon III to open the second World’s Fair in Paris in 1855 and to hold some of the world’s grandest, including the Exposition Universelle 1889, for which the Eiffel Tower was built as a grand entrance.
By the time of the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, attitudes had progressed even further by focusing not on nationalistic prowess, but on the history of the world and its peoples.
9. The profits funded three of London’s most loved museums
Built in the area to the south of the exhibition and nicknamed ‘Albertopolis’, the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and the Natural History Museum were all founded using the surplus profit from the Great Exhibition which amounted to a sum equal to £18 million in today’s money.
Even with the cost of these beautiful buildings, there was enough money left over to set up a trust for grants and scholarships for industrial research that continues to this day.
Victoria and Albert Museum. Credit Nick Garrod, flickr
Inside The Natural History Museum, London. Credit Gene Krasko
The Modern World gallery in the science museum, london. Credit Geni
10. The Crystal Palace was destroyed by fire in 1936
After the Great Exhibition had come to a close, plans were drawn up to move the entire Crystal Palace structure to a new location in the suburbs of south-east London.
In 1852, the building went into private ownership and was moved to Sydenham, Kent.
Completely dismantled and re-built in the new Beaux-arts style, the greatly enlarged Crystal Palace was opened by Queen Victoria in 1854.
Costing six times as much to move as the original palace had cost to build, it became an extravagant money pit and the owners quickly fell into debt.
Unlike the unmitigated success of the Great Exhibition, the new Crystal Palace was plagued with financial woes.
Although Sunday was the only free day for the working classes, religious observance prevented the palace from opening.
Even when the palace did start to open on Sundays, people had largely lost interest and attendance was low.
Crystal Palace Fire of 1936
Falling into a state of disrepair, and despite a restoration project by Sir Henry Buckland in the 1920s, tragedy struck on 30 November, 1936.
In a few hours we have seen the end of the Crystal Palace. Yet it will live in the memories not only of Englishmen, but the whole world.Sir Henry Buckland.
100,000 people came to watch the blaze, as 89 fire engines and over 400 firemen fought valiantly through the night.
One of the onlookers was Winston Churchill, who said, “this is the end of an age”.
Britain’s heritage of piers dates from the boom in seaside resorts during the Victorian era.
The first seaside piers were built in England in the early 19th century.
Originally constructed as simple wooden landing stages for boat trips, piers later developed into complex entertainment venues, with ornate pavilions, delicate ironwork, and exotic lighting.
Serving the town of Ryde on the Isle of Wight off England’s south coast is the world’s oldest seaside pleasure pier. Ryde Pier opened on 26 July 1814.
It was the introduction of the railways that, for the first time, enabled ordinary folk to travel to seaside resorts.
Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 by John Dobbin
By 1850, there were a dozen piers at British seaside resorts.
Providing a walkway out to sea, these fashionable and select extensions of the seafront promenade allowed holidaymakers to experience being close to the sea at all times—even at low tide.
As the industrial revolution gained pace, iron piles were introduced that were literally screwed into the ground, providing enough rigidity to support a whole range of entertainments and attractions along the pier’s length, from theaters to penny arcades, from ballrooms to bowling alleys.
Opened in 1855, Margate Pier was the first of this new breed of pleasure pier, catering to the needs of thousands of tourists.
By 1900, there were 80 fully fledged piers, with some seaside towns having two or three piers.
Remarking on the pace of pier development in the 1890s, one commentator said it would be necessary to alter the map of England and represent it as a huge creature of the porcupine type, with gigantic piers instead of quills.
Here are 18 of the most beautiful seaside pleasure piers of the Victorian era.
Margate Pier, Kent, 1855
Margate claims a number of firsts for its once magnificent Victorian pier. It was the first pier from the famous pier designer Eugenius Birch, the first iron pier, and had been an 1100 foot wooden jetty called “Jarvis Landing Stage” since 1824—long before the reign of pleasure piers.
A drifting vessel and storm damage ultimately led to the pier’s demise, with some relics to be found in Margate Museum.
Margate Pier, Kent, England, 1895
Great Yarmouth’s Britannia Pier, Norfolk, 1858
Originally measuring 700ft, the wooden structure was used for evening band performances and open air concert parties.
As Great Yarmouth grew in prominence as a holiday destination, the wooden structure was replaced by a steel construction, housing a 2000-seat pavillion.
Great Yarmouth Britannia Pier, England, 1895
Great Yarmouth promenade and Britannia Pier, England, 1895
Southport Pier, Merseyside, 1860
At 3,600 ft, Southport Pier is the second longest pier in Great Britain after Southend Pier, but at one time reached 4380 ft.
A cable operated tramway opened in 1865, running from the promenade to the far end of the pier and a tram has run in various guises ever since, only recently closing in June 2015 due to rising maintenance costs.
Southport Pier and Bridge, England, 1895
Southport Pier and Bridge, England, 1895
Worthing Pier, West Sussex, 1862
Opened as a simple 960-ft promenade deck, Worthing Pier was upgraded in 1888 with a 650-seat pavillion.
When only the stranded pier head remained after storm damage on Easter Monday, 1913, it became affectionately known as “Easter Island”.
Worthing Pier, West Sussex, England, 1895
Blackpool North Pier, Lancashire, 1863
Intended only as a promenade, the popularity of Blackpool as a major tourist resort forced the oldest and longest of its three piers to offer other attractions including theatres and bars.
While Blackpool’s other piers entertained the working classes with penny arcades and open air dancing, North Pier attracted an upper-class clientele with orchestral concerts and respectable comedians.
Designed by Eugenius Birch, it is the oldest remaining of his fourteen piers.
Blackpool, North Pier, c. 1895
Blackpool North Pier, Lancashire, England, 1895
Brighton West Pier, East Sussex, 1866
Designed by Eugenius Birch to attract tourism to Brighton, the West Pier was constructed during the 1860s boom in pleasure pier building.
At its peak in 1919, it attracted two million visitors, but its popularity declined after World War II, eventually closing in 1975 after the owners filed for bankruptcy.
Decay and two major fires in 2003 have rendered it a mere shell of its former self.
Brighton Pier, England, 1895
Birnbeck Pier, Weston-super-mare, Somerset, 1867
Serving as a boarding point for steamships in the Bristol Channel, Birnbeck Pier was popular with tourists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is the only pier in England that links the mainland to an island.
Designed by Eugenius Birch, it is designated as part of England’s “Heritage at Risk”, being derelict and vulnerable to further decay since 1994.
Weston-super-Mare, Birnbeck Pier 1895
Saltburn Pier, North Yorkshire, 1869
Arriving in Saltburn in 1861, the Stockton and Darlington Railway prompted a growth in tourism that spurred the construction of a 1500 ft pier with a steamship landing stage and a Cliff Hoist to provide access from the town via the steep cliff.
Saltburn-by-the-Sea Pier and bathing machines, Yorkshire, 1895
Eastbourne Pier, East Sussex, 1870
Opened by Lord Edward Cavendish, son of the 7th Duke of Devonshire, Eastbourne pier was 1000 ft long and with its bands and theatre, only offered the highest class of entertainment.
At the seaward end was a 400-seat domed pavilion, which was later replaced by a 1000-seat theatre, bar, camera obscura and office suite. Midway along the pier were two saloons.
Designed by Eugenius Birch, it was built on stilts resting on cups on the seabed so that the whole structure could move during rough weather
Eastbourne Pier postcard. Credit Ian Boyle, Simplon Postcards
Eastbourne Pier postcard. Credit Ian Boyle, Simplon Postcards
Clacton Pier, Essex, 1871
The first building in the new resort of Clacton-on-Sea, the pier was originally a wooden structure 480 ft long and 12 ft wide, serving as a docking station for steamships.
Becoming a popular destination for day trips, Clacton Pier was extended in 1893 to 1180 ft and a pavillion and other entertainment facilities were added.
Fire and storm damage caused significant structural weakness, but an ambitious restoration project was undertaken in 1994 to creae a modern amusement park.
Clacton-on-Sea Pier, England, 1895
Clacton Pier, Essex, 1895
Hastings Pier, East Sussex, 1872
Designed by Eugenius Birch—famous for the West Pier at Brighton and Eastbourne’s Pier—Hastings Pier was opened on the first ever August Bank Holiday in 1872.
After a tumultuous history of storm damage, fires, and failed attempts to salvage the pier, it closed in 2008. National Lottery funding in 2012 eventually kickstarted a major redevelopment plan with the pier opening again on 27 April 2016.
Hastings Pier, England, 1895
Rhyl Pier, Wales, 1872
Damaged by ships and storms and eventually demolished in 1972, Rhyl Pier once reached out 2,355 ft into the sea in North Wales and included a pier railway.
Beside it stood the five-domed ornate Pavillion Theatre, once a famous Rhyl landmark.
Rhyl Pier, Wales, 1895
Rhyl pier sea water baths
Llandudno Pier, Wales, 1877
At 2295 ft, Llandudno Pier is the longest pier in Wales and is often chosen for Victorian and Edwardian seaside filming locations.
A 2,000-seat Pavillion Theater opened in 1886 with three stories and a flamboyant cast-iron veranda running the entire seaward façade. It burned down in 1994 and was not replaced.
Llandudno Pier, Wales, 1895
Skegness Pier, Lincolnshire, 1881
At the time of its opening, the Skegness Pier, at 1,842 ft, was the fourth longest in England.
Featuring a saloon and concert hall at the pier head, it was damaged by a drifting ship in 1919 and today is only 387 ft long.
Skegness Pier, England, 1895
Folkestone Pier, Kent, 1888
Opened by Lady Folkestone on 21st July 1888, the pier’s pavilion could seat 800 patrons and provided high-brow entertainments for Folkestone’s largely aristocratic clientele. A stroll on the pier cost 2 pennies.
Folkestone pier, England, 1895
Southend Pier, Essex, 1889
Spending time by the sea was considered good for one’s health and many Victorian Londoners came to Southend for this reason.
But the sea recedes at Southend for over a mile, necessitating the original 60o-ft structure to be extended to 7,000 ft, making it the longest pier in Europe and the longest pleasure pier in the world today.
Southend-on-Sea Pier, England, 1895
Morecambe Pier, Lancashire, 1896
Originally extending 1800 ft into the Irish Sea at Morecambe Bay, the pier suffered storm and fire damage but continued to soldier on, providing entertainment until 1978 when it was finally demolished.
West End Pier, Morecambe, England, 1895
Morecambe West End Pier, England, 1895
Herne Bay Pier, Kent, 1899
Completed in 1899, and at 3,787 ft, it was the second longest pier in England until being demolished in 1978.
Still existing today is the restaurant at the pierhead which later became a ticket office and cafe.
At a short distance from the entrance, a large concert marquee housed the local Cremona orchestra and an electric tram cost 1 penny to take people from one end of the pier to the other.
Herne Bay Pier, England, 1895
Colwyn Bay Pier, North Wales, 1900
Opening in June 1900 at a length of 750 ft, the pier included a massive 2500-seat pavillion in the Moorish Revival style.
Boasting a large balcony extending around three sides of the auditorium, the pavilion featured a full orchestra pit.
Despite many changes of ownership due to financial difficulties, fires, and several regeneration attempts, the pier sits in a state of disrepair and collapse.
The promenade at Colwyn Bay, Wales
Colwyn Bay Pier and Pavillion, Wales
References
Wikipedia
Designing the Seaside: Architecture, Society and Nature by Fred Gray
National Piers Society
A Christmas Carol was born of an idea that the best way to bring about awareness for the plight of the poor was through story.
Dickens had considered writing pamphlets and essays, but these were not the ways to reach people’s hearts.
People loved stories.
A few weeks earlier, his friend the Baroness Burdett-Coutts had considered donating to the system of religiously-inspired schools known as the “Ragged Schools”.
She had asked Dickens if he would visit the school at Saffron Hill in London and relay his impressions.
Cruikshank represents a ragged school at the Saffron Hill slum in London, which Charles Dickens visited on behalf of philanthropist Angela Burdett Coutts in 1843. This visit undoubtedly shaped his conception of Ignorance and Want — and the importance of elementary education as an antidote to poverty — in A Christmas Carol). (Philip V. Allingham)
I have seldom seen in all the strange and dreadful things I have seen in London and elsewhere, anything so shocking as the dire neglect of soul and body exhibited in these children (Mackenzie, Dickens, pp. 143-44).Charles Dickens
Charles Dickens at the Blacking Warehouse as a boy of twelve years of age.
Dickens was shocked with what he saw.
It was his personal experience that imbued him with a sense of duty to help the poor.
Growing up, his father, John Dickens, was imprisoned in Marshalsea debtors prison, while Charles was forced to leave school and work in a blacking factory.
Before the Bankruptcy Act of 1869, debtors in England were routinely imprisoned at the pleasure of their creditors.
Memories of this period would haunt Dickens for the rest of his life.
Although he loved his father, he saw in him a cold-hearted miser, inspiring the dual characters of Ebenezer Scrooge.
The cold within him froze his old features, nipped his pointed nose, made his eyes red, his thin lips blue, and spoke out shrewdly in his grating voice…Charles Dickens
Marshalsea Debtors Prison
Victorian London was experiencing an economic boom, but one that left the poor behind.
Poverty and Wealth by William Powell Frith, 1888
Moving to London in search of opportunity from the harsh agrarian life in the country, many became disappointed, disillusioned, and destitute.
The industrial revolution brought huge wealth to a tiny percentage of the population, with the majority scraping a living in damp, noisy factories, and cramped, filthy slums.
A Poor-House by Gustave Doré
Dwellings of the poor in Bethnal Green. Credit Wellcome Images
Dickens and the Baroness felt that education was the solution. At least it gave hope even to the poorest of families that their children might one day break the mould of poverty and join the rising middle class.
With the Saffron Hill Ragged School still playing on his mind, in October of 1843 Dickens visited a workingmen’s educational institute in the industrial city of Manchester, England.
It was here that Dickens had his “eureka moment”.
Instead of writing a journalistic piece on the plight of the poor, he would write a ghost story—A Christmas Carol.
A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens. In Prose. Being a Ghost Story of Christmas. With Illustrations by John Leech. Chapman & Hall, London, 1843. First edition. Title page.
Through story, Dickens asked for people to recognize the plight of those whom the Industrial Revolution had displaced and driven into poverty, and the obligation of society to provide for them humanely.
Critical praise poured in.
A tale to make the reader laugh and cry – to open his hands, and open his heart to charity even toward the uncharitable … a dainty dish to set before a King.the London literary magazine, Athenaeum
a national benefit and to every man or woman who reads it, a personal kindness.William Makepeace Thackeray in Fraser's Magazine
brings the old Christmas of bygone centuries and remote manor houses, into the living rooms of the poor of todayThe New York Times
Scottish writer Margaret Oliphant described it as “a new gospel”.
The impact was astounding.
In the spring of 1844, there was a sudden burst of charitable giving in Britain.
Scottish philosopher and writer, Thomas Carlyle, staged two Christmas dinners after reading the book.
After attending a reading on Christmas Eve in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1867, a Mr Fairbanks closed his factory on Christmas Day and sent every employee a turkey.
British stage actor Sir Squire Bancroft raised £20,000 for the poor by reading A Christmas Carol out loud in public.
With today’s information revolution displacing many livelihoods, the story is as relevant as it was for Charles Dickens.
In advocating the humanitarian focus of the Christmas holiday, Dickens influenced many aspects that are celebrated in Western culture today—family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games and a festive generosity of spirit.
At this time of feasting, let us reflect on A Christmas Carol and the social movement it inspired.
Fatigued Minstrels by Augustus Edwin Mulready
There a group of handsome girls, all hooded and fur-booted, and all chattering at once
Soup for the poor by Albert Anker
Illustration from A Christmas Carol
The Forlorn (Poor Children) by Octave Tassaert
The Christmas Hamper by Robert Braithwaite Martineau
Halfpenny dinners for poor children in East London. Credit Wellcome Images
Chester Square, Belgravia, London by John Edwin Oldfield
London Slums
Hush! by James Tissot
Applicants to Admission to a Casual Ward by Sir Luke Fildes
At the age of eight, Cléo de Mérode (1875 – 1966) was already showing the talent that would make her a world renowned dancer of the Belle Époque.
Born in Paris to a Viennese baroness, she entered the Paris Opera ballet school at seven and made her professional debut at age eleven.
But it would be her beauty that stirred the public’s imagination, for Cléo de Mérode was, perhaps, the first real celebrity icon.
Before long, her dancing skills took second stage to her glamour, as postcards and playing cards around the world started featuring her image.
Cléo de Mérode, by Paul Nadar, 1894
She was the talk of the town. Her new hairstyle was eagerly awaited and quickly imitated. Famous artists of the Belle Époque, like Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Giovanni Boldini, and Félix Nadar queued to sculpt, paint, and photograph her.
Cléo de Merode, by Charles Ogerau, 1895
Cléo de Mérode, 1897
Cleo De Merode at the Salon by Carlos Vazquez Ubeda (1869 – 1944)
Even royalty courted her. In 1896, King Léopold II, having watched her dance at the ballet, became infatuated with her, and rumor soon spread that she was his mistress. The king had fathered two children with a prostitute and her reputation suffered as a consequence.
Cléo de Mérode
But this was the Belle Époque, a time of unprecedented colonial expansion, the very dawn of modern celebrity culture. Such indiscretions were soon forgotten and Cléo de Mérode became an international star, giving performances across Europe and the United States.
Cléo de Mérode by Giovanni Boldini, 1901
Cleo de Merode, 1903
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Her decision to dance at the risqué Folies Bergère cabaret only served to heighten her following. And when she met artist Gustav Klimt, whose specialty was female sexuality, a romance blossomed that inspired the 2006 movie Klimt.
Cléo de Merode by Reutlinger
Cléo de Merode, by Charles Ogerau, 1902
Cleo de Merode, 1905
Cléo de Mérode, 1910
Continuing to dance into her early fifties, Mérode eventually retired to the seaside resort of Biarritz in the French Pyrénées. In 1955, she published her autobiography, Le Ballet de ma vie (The Dance of My Life).
Biarritz, 1930s
At the ripe old age of 91, the greatest celebrity of the Belle Époque was no more. Cléo de Mérode was interred in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris. Her spirit still watches over her mother, interred in the same tomb.
Tomb of Cléo de Mérode, the Père Lachaise cemetery in Paris. Credit Lebiblio
This is the story of how a series of exquisite handmade dolls, representing the history of French haute couture made their way to the United States as an expression of gratitude.
The year was 1948 and France was still suffering from the effects of World War II. Housed in boxcars and dubbed the “Friendship Train”, American aide organizations had sent large-scale relief the year before.
Read more …
Now it was France who wished to show its gratitude for America’s generosity by creating the “Gratitude Train”—a set of 49 box cars filled with French-made gifts, like handmade toys and priceless works of art.
The French fashion houses banded together to create something very special.
They tasked their most talented designers with creating a set of fashion dolls that would show the evolution of French fashion.
Measuring 24 inches tall with bodies made from open wire, the designers used human hair to fashion the hairstyles.
Using period paintings, literature, and fashion plates as references, each designer chose a year between 1715 and 1906.
Representing their creative interpretations, the designers used the same level of care and attention to detail as they did for full size work.
It was a unique moment in the history of French couture.
“1715 Doll”. Marcel Rochas (French, 1902–1955)
“1715 Doll”. Marcel Rochas (French, 1902–1955)
“1733 Doll”. Jean Bader (French)
“1733 Doll”. Jean Bader (French)
“1755 Doll”. A. Reichert (French)
“1755 Doll”. A. Reichert (French)
“1774 Doll”. Jean Dessès (French (born Egypt), Alexandria 1904–1970 Athens)
“1774 Doll”. Jean Dessès (French (born Egypt), Alexandria 1904–1970 Athens)
“1779 Doll”. Lucille Manguin
“1779 Doll”. Lucille Manguin
“1785 Doll”. Maggy Rouff (French, 1896–1971)
“1785 Doll”. Maggy Rouff (French, 1896–1971)
“1787 Doll”. Mendel
“1787 Doll”. Mendel
“1791 Doll”. Martial & Armand
“1791 Doll”. Martial & Armand
“1808 Doll”. Madame Grès (Alix Barton) (French, Paris 1903–1993 Var region)
“1808 Doll”. Madame Grès (Alix Barton) (French, Paris 1903–1993 Var region)
“1820 Doll”. House of Patou (French, founded 1919)
“1820 Doll”. House of Patou (French, founded 1919)
“1828 Doll”. Henriette Beaujeu (French)
“1828 Doll”. Henriette Beaujeu (French)
“1832 Doll”. Marcelle Dormoy (French)
“1832 Doll”. Marcelle Dormoy (French)
“1866 Doll”. Marcelle Chaumont (French)
“1866 Doll”. Marcelle Chaumont (French)
“1867 Doll”. Jacques Fath (French, 1912–1954)
“1867 Doll”. Jacques Fath (French, 1912–1954)
“1873 Doll”. Madeleine Vramant (French)
“1873 Doll”. Madeleine Vramant (French)
“1884 Doll”. Nina Ricci (French, 1883–1970)
“1884 Doll”. Nina Ricci (French, 1883–1970)
“1892 Doll”. Germaine Lecomte
“1892 Doll”. Germaine Lecomte
“1896 Doll”. Bruyère (French, founded 1928)
“1896 Doll”. Bruyère (French, founded 1928)
“1902 Doll”. Robert Piguet (French, born Switzerland, 1901–1953)
“1902 Doll”. Robert Piguet (French, born Switzerland, 1901–1953)
Just as we chuckle today at the absurd dimensions reached by Victorian crinolines, so too did Victorians themselves.
Shown here is an early inflatable (air tube) version of the crinoline by George Cruikshank, from The Comic Almanack, 1850. Crinolines wouldn’t actually come into wide use until a few years later.
In this humorous example, the exaggerated size of the crinoline meant that the gentlemen had to use long-handled trays (“baker’s peels”) to offer food and drink to their ladies.
A Splendid Spread, satire on an early inflatable (air tube) version of the crinoline by George Cruikshank
If there was one thing such broad crinoline skirts guaranteed the wearer, it was plenty of personal space.
Don’t try to whisper in my ear, or your crinoline will tip up, my dear.
1862 Vienna fashions
The fashion became so popular that Punch nicknamed the crinoline craze “Crinolinemania”.
And it’s not difficult to see why—even today, the bell-shaped profile of a crinoline-supported dress lends a fairytale quality to a wedding.
No doubt the impression left by a beautiful Princess and Empress had a bearing on the success of the crinoline.
Princess Dagmar of Denmark and Empress Elisabeth “Sisi” of Austria
Here are 10 facts about the crinoline—some of which you may find surprising.
1. The 16th-century Spanish farthingale was the grandmother of the crinoline
Wide and full skirts were popular as far back as the 15th century.
Queen Consort Joan of Portugal made the hoop skirt popular when she wore one to court.
Originally called the Spanish verdugado and later corrupted to “farthingale” in English, it was alleged that Joan wore it to help hide an illegitimate pregnancy.
There’s nothing like a bit of court gossip to help a fashion’s popularity.
Probably the earliest depiction of the Spanish verdugada (farthingale), Catalonia, 1470-80
Introduced to England by Catherine of Aragon when she married the ill-fated 15-year-old Arthur, Prince of Wales, the Spanish farthingale was a petticoat of linen with bands of cane, or whalebone inserted horizontally at intervals.
Gradually widening from the waist to the hem, the cone-shape of the Spanish farthingale became popular with European sovereigns for the remainder of the 16th century.
Spanish farthingale. Clockwise from top left: Catherin de Medici, c. 1555; Queen Elizabeth I of England, c. 1563; Elizabeth of Valois, Queen of Spain, 1565; Isabella of the Spanish Netherlands, 1599
2. The crinoline gets its name from horsehair
Described as a combination of the French words crin, meaning horsehair, and lin meaning linen, the name essentially describes the materials used to make the original crinoline, i.e. horsehair and linen.
Used from the early 1840s, the horsehair crinoline supported the weight of other petticoats under the increasingly full, bell-shaped skirts that had become popular.
1842, British, silk. metmuseum
Horsehair crinolines reduced the number of required petticoats to achieve the desired profile and offered more freedom of movement for the wearer’s legs.
But they were heavy, uncomfortable, hot and unhygienic—especially during the summer.
What was needed was something lighter, but with more structure. Enter the cage crinoline.
3. Cage crinolines were lightweight and highly flexible
c. 1860 Cage Crinolines. Credit Hugo Maertens (left), metmuseum (right)
The steel-hooped cage crinoline, first patented in April 1856 by R.C. Milliet in Paris, and by their agent in Britain a few months later, became extremely popular.
Although cage crinolines looked very rigid, the spring steel they were made from was very flexible and could be compressed. Aside from the inevitable accidents, women learned how to walk in crinolines and how to sit down in them without revealing underclothes.
Because the spring steel was very lightweight, far from restricting women, they were liberating, freeing women from multiple layers of petticoats worn in prior decades.
The Lady’s Newspaper of 1863 enthusiastically praised the cage crinoline:
So perfect are the wave-like bands that a lady may ascend a steep stair, lean against a table, throw herself into an armchair, pass to her stall at the opera, and occupy a further seat in a carriage, without inconveniencing herself or others, and provoking the rude remarks of observers thus modifying in an important degree, all those peculiarities tending to destroy the modesty of Englishwomen; and lastly, it allows the dress to fall in graceful folds.
4. Cage crinolines were mass-produced in huge quantity
One of the biggest producers was Douglas & Sherwood’s Hoop Skirt Factory in New York. It employed 800 women and produced in excess of 8,000 hoop skirts each day.
Douglas & Sherwood’s Hoop Skirt Factory
To make the hoops required a ton of steel per day, and each month the factory would get through 150,000 yards of muslin, 100,000 feet of whalebone, 24,000 spools of cotton, 2,800,000 eyelets, 500,000 yards of tape, 225,000 yards of cord, and 10,000 yards of haircloth.
Douglas & Sherwood’s Hoop Skirt Factory
5. There were accidents with crinolines, some tragic and fatal
Overzealous advertising tried to reassure potential customers that their freedom of movement would be unhindered by wearing a cage crinoline.
This gave a false sense of security about the level of care and attention that was needed to avoid accidents while wearing them.
c. 1860. Women wearing crinolines which are set on fire by flames from a domestic fireplace.
Not being constantly aware of exactly where the extremities of the dress were could lead to tragedy.
Thousands of women died in the mid-19th century as a result of their hooped skirts catching fire.
Other hazards included the hoops being caught in machinery, carriage wheels, gusts of wind, or other obstacles.
6. Crinolines crossed class barriers
Crinolines were worn by women of every social standing and class across the Western world, from royalty to factory workers.
Princess Alice by Franz Xaver WinterhalterA fashionably dressed woman tells off her maid for wearing a crinoline hoop, unaware that she looks just as ridiculous in hers. Punch, 1861.
1861 Working Class couple enjoying a night at the theatre
Croquet players of 1864 loop their skirts up from floor-length over hooped petticoats. Croquet Scene by Winslow Homer, 1864
7. Crinolines reached 18 feet in circumference
At its widest point, the crinoline could reach a circumference of up to six yards—providing the perfect opportunity for satirical cartoons to exaggerate dimensions even further.
Emily Madame Bonton says the Circumference of the Crinoline should be Thirty-Six Feet! Caroline Dear me! – I’m only Thirty-Two! I must Inflate a little!
Cartoon in Punch satirizing the circumference of crinolines
1860-64, British, silk. metmuseum
1865, French, silk. memuseum
1860-64, American, cotton. metmuseum
1864 French, silk. metmuseum
Contemporary photographs show that many women wore smaller versions of the crinoline, as opposed to the huge bell-shaped creations so often seen in fashion plates. Large crinolines were probably reserved for balls, weddings and other special occasions.
8. Media scrutiny
Widespread media scrutiny and criticism followed the crinoline, from journal articles to poems decrying the fashion, to songs complaining about them.
The crinoline also came under heavy fire from moralists, publicists, and satirists who often condemned the fineries of fashion and sensationalized the most extreme situations—none more so than London’s satirical magazine Punch and New York’s Harper’s Weekly.
Only to think, Julia dear, that our Mothers wore such ridiculous fashions as these! Ha! ha! ha! ha!
1857 Cartoon comparing crinolines to Regency fashion
Take care that the Ends of your Hoops be secure; they have been known to give way—to the great alarm and discomfiture of the Lovely Wearer
A fashionably dressed woman is shown with her skirt distorted due to the snapping of several of the hoops that supported her crinoline, much to the amusement of men and women looking on.
Hint for the Seaside: crinoline forever—no bathing machine required
Two women are shown sea-bathing while wearing crinoline petticoats around their necks as a substitute for bathing tents
9. Queen Victoria is said to have detested crinolines
Queen Victoria is said to have inspired a song in Punch:
Long live our gracious Queen, Who won’t wear the crinoline!
“I’m not going in this ghastly dress, Albert.” “But it’s all the rage, my dear.” “I’ll be the one in a rage if I have to go in this.”
When Queen Victoria’s daughter was married to the Prussian Prince Frederick in 1858, the queen requested the Prussian ladies not to wear crinolines because there was not enough room in the Chapel Royal at St. James’s Palace.
This incident probably led many to believe she disliked crinolines, but numerous photographs show her wearing one.
10. The crinoline craze reached its peak during the early 1860s
Falling out of favor by about 1862, the silhouette of the crinoline changed from bell-shaped to flatter at the front with the fullness projected out more behind.
Called the “crinolette”, it was typically composed of “half hoops” made of the same spring steel
English crinolettes, 1872–75, LACMA
Crinolettes would bridge the gap until the next big fashion craze to sweep the world appeared—the Bustle.
References:
Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Costume by Doreen Yarwood Tudor Costume and Fashion by Herbert Norris Corsets & Crinolines in Victorian Fashion by Lucy Johnstone, V&A Museum Victorian and Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey by Alison Gernsheim
Although Queen Victoria was not the first monarch to wear white at her wedding, she is credited with starting the tradition of a white wedding when she chose to wear a white wedding dress to marry Prince Albert in 1840.
The Marriage of Queen Victoria, 10 February 1840 by George Hayter
2 Wearing white was unusual at the time of her wedding
At the time of Queen Victoria’s wedding, wearing white was considered unusual, but in less than a decade, it was being proclaimed as a long-standing tradition. Godey’s Lady’s Book—the most widely circulated magazine in America—wrote:
Custom has decided, from the earliest ages, that white is the most fitting hue, whatever may be the material. It is an emblem of the purity and innocence of girlhood, and the unsullied heart she now yields to the chosen one.
Queen Victoria sported the rounded shoulderline that enhanced the length of her neck—a look that was prized through most of the nineteenth century. From the 1830s to the 1880s, the lowered splayed stance of corset straps and open neckline lent a romantic effect.
3 White dresses symbolized innocence and status
Not only did white wedding dresses connote innocence and sexual purity, but because laundry technology was not very advanced in the early Victorian period, they also represented a way to display conspicuous consumption.
White wedding dresses showed that the bride’s family could afford a dress that would be ruined by any type of work, indicating that they must be from the leisure class.
4 Queen Victoria wrote about her wedding dress in her 122-volume diary
Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert
Queen Victoria was an avid diarist, filling 122 volumes during her lifetime. Describing her choice of wedding dress, she wrote:
I wore a white satin dress, with a deep flounce of Honiton lace, an imitation of an old design. My jewels were my Turkish diamond necklace & earrings & dear Albert’s beautiful sapphire brooch.
5 Victoria’s wedding supported the English lace cottage industry
Examples of Honiton Lace from Honiton, Devon
The lace used for Queen Victoria’s wedding dress was from Honiton in Devon. Lace making was still a cottage industry and her choice demonstrated support for working-class Britain.
The lace comprised of sprigs or motifs made separately and then sewn together into a net.
It is thought Flemish refugees brought the art to England in the mid-to-late 16th century.
6 She commissioned Franz Xaver Winterhalter to paint an anniversary gift for Albert
Queen Victoria by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1847. Miniature by John Haslem.
In 1847, Victoria commissioned Franz Xaver Winterhalter to paint a portrait of her wearing her wedding clothes as an anniversary present for Prince Albert. The portrait was also copied as an enamel miniature by John Haslem.
7 Her veil was 12 ft long
The veil, which matched the flounce of the dress, was four yards in length and 0.75 yards wide. When Victoria died, she was buried with her wedding veil over her face.
Wedding veils helped promote the Victorian ideal of modesty and propriety. Etiquette books spread the notion that decorous brides were naturally too timid to show their faces in public until they were married.
1868 Wedding Dress. American. Cincinnati Art Museum
8 She wore specially made matching silk slippers
Queen Victoria’s wedding slippers
Queen Victoria’s white satin slippers matched the white colour of her dress. Long ribbon ties fastening round the ankles held the shoes in place. They were made by Gundry and Son, 1 Soho Square, Boot and Shoemakers to the Queen.
The train of Queen Victoria’s wedding dress measured 18 feet (5.5 m) long, requiring 12 bridesmaids to carry it.
10 She started a trend followed by millions
Hollywood movie weddings, especially in the second half of the 20th century, have helped the popularity of white weddings.
But British royal weddings have probably done more to ensure the tradition of white weddings is here to stay than anything else.
In 1981, 750 million people tuned in to watch Charles, Prince of Wales marry Diana Spencer in her elaborate white taffeta dress, with a 25-foot-long train. This wedding is generally considered the most influential white wedding of the 20th century—and also the most expensive at an inflation-adjusted $110 million.
Helen Allingham (1848 – 1926) was an English watercolour painter and illustrator of the Victorian era.
Displaying a talent for art from an early age, she drew inspiration from her maternal grandmother Sarah Smith Herford and aunt Laura Herford—both accomplished artists.
She attended the National Art Training School in London—now the Royal College of Art.
In 1874, she produced 12 illustrations for the serialised version of Thomas Hardy‘s novel “Far from the Madding Crowd“.
In 1890, she became the first woman to become a full member of the Royal Watercolour Society.
A Cottage With Sunflowers by Helen Allingham
A Surrey Cottage by Helen Allingham
A Mother And Child Entering A Cottage by Helen Allingham
A Cottage Near Crocken Hill by Helen Allingham
A Village Street by Helen Allingham
An Iltshire Cottage by Helen Allingham
Children On A Path Outside A Thatched Cottage, West Horsley, Surrey by Helen Allingham
Children Outside a Cottage by Helen Allingham
Cottage at Pinner by Helen Allingham
Cottage, Freshwater, Isle of Wight by Helen Allingham
Hill Farm, Symondsbury by Helen Allingham
Irish Cottage by Helen Allingham
Manor House, Kent by Helen Allingham
Outside the cottage by Helen Allingham
The saucer of milk by Helen Allingham
A Berkshire Cottage by Helen Allingham
A Buckinghamshire house at Penstreet by Helen Allingham
A Cottage Door by Helen Allingham
A Cottage near Brook, Witley, Surrey by Helen Allingham
A Surrey Cottage by Helen Allingham
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Self-portrait as a firewood gatherer walking along a frozen canal.
Cornelis Springer (1817-1891) specialised in the arrangement and accurate representation of town scenes. His paintings were in such high demand that he had a two-year waiting list.
Raised in a family of architects and building contractors, he learned early to appreciate the beautiful buildings of Amsterdam.
Learning perspective drawing from his brother Hendrick—a professional architect—he completed his studies at the Amsterdam Academy of Fine Arts under instruction from Kaspar Karsen, a famous townscape painter.
Cornelis Springer’s beautiful scenes depict people going about day-to-day life—gathering at the fish market, unloading horse-drawn carts, merchants selling goods, or businessmen in conversation outside elegant canalside buildings.
With a keen eye for the social and economic activities that drive a city, Springer brings to life the beauty of Dutch architecture.
Altstadtmarkt in Brunswijk by Cornelis Springer
Zuiderhavendijk, Enkhuizen by Cornelis Springer, 1868
A View of a Town along the Rhine by Cornelis Springer
Altstadtmarkt in Brunswijk by Cornelis Springer
A View of Franeker with the Zakkend Ragerschuisje by Cornelis Springer
Cheese market with the Weigh house in Enkhuizen by Cornelis Springer, 1867
Cornelis Springer, The Gemeenlandshuis and the Old Church, Delft by Cornelis Springer, 1877
Village View by Cornelis Springer
A View of the Delftse Vaart and Saint Laurens Church, Rotterdam by Cornelis Springer, 1840
Figures on a Market Square in a Dutch Town by Cornelis Springer, 1843
Study for View on Den Haag by Cornelis Springer
The town hall at Leiden by Cornelis Springer, 1870
The Orphanage On The Hooglandse Kerkgracht, Leiden by Cornelis Springer
City View at Hoorn by Cornelis Springer
Market Oudewater by Cornelis Springer
The bend in the Herengracht by Cornelis Springer, 1882
Walenkerk Haarlem by Cornelis Springer
View of Montelspran by Cornelis Springer
View on Enkhuizen by Cornelis Springer
Voorburgwal in Amsterdam by Cornelis Springer
Many Figures On The Market Square In Front Of The Martinikirche, Braunschweig by Cornelis Springer
St. Michael Church in Zwolle by Cornelis Springer, 1862
A view of the Staal Everspijp and the Grote Kerk in summer, Enkhuizen by Cornelis Springer, 1866
A View of the Delftse Vaart and Saint Laurens Church, Rotterdam by Cornelis Springer, 1840
View behind the Grote Kerk in Naarden by Cornelis Springer
Alfred Stevens was one of Belgium’s leading 19th-century artists who specialized in paintings of fashionable young women in elegant interiors.
Read more …
As a young boy, Alfred Stevens (1823 – 1906) was surrounded by art: his father was an art collector and his grandparents ran a cafe in Brussels that was a meeting place for artists and writers.
At age 14, he studied at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, and at 20 was admitted to the most prestigious art school in Paris—the École des Beaux-Arts.
By 1851, at the age of 28, three of his paintings were admitted to the Brussels Salon, the most exclusive art exhibition in Belgium. Two years later, he was awarded a medal at the Paris Salon—the most important art event in the world.
It was here, in Paris, that he would find fame and fortune painting elegant modern women.
Here are 20 exquisite paintings from Alfred Steven’s repertoire that show his meticulous attention to contemporary dress and decor.
Departing for the Promenade, by Alfred-Émile-Léopold Stevens, 1859
La Parisienne Japonaise by Alfred Stevens, 1871
Lady at a Window Feeding Birds by Alfred Stevens, 1859
Pleasant Letter by Alfred Stevens, 1860
The Lady in Pink by Alfred Stevens, 1867
In the Studio by Alfred Stevens, 1888
The Japanese Mask by Alfred Stevens, 1877
In the Country by Alfred Stevens, 1823-1906
After the Ball by Alfred Stevens, 1873
Autumn Flowers by Alfred Stevens, 1866
News from Afar by Alfred Stevens, 1865
The Letter by Alfred Stevens, 1823-1906
At Home by Alfred Stevens, 1823-1906
The Happy Mother by Alfred Stevens, 1823-1906
Déjà by Alfred Stevens, 1863
Pensive Woman Near a Window by Alfred Stevens, 1823-1906
La Parisienne, 1879 by Alfred Stevens, 1879
Portrait of Baroness du Mesnil Saint-Front by Alfred Stevens, 1886
Mother and Children by Alfred Stevens, 1882
The Blue Ribbon by Alfred Stevens, 1823-1906 Credit Giacasso
Imagine you’re attending a fashion show in the Victorian era. You get to choose the trends for the next Victorian season—what’s hot and what’s not from the entire period of Queen Victoria’s reign—1837-1901.
Before we begin voting yea or nay, let’s review the Victorian ladies fashion scene.
Read more …
In the 1840s and 1850s, dresses were mostly simple and pale, often with wide puffed sleeves. Corsets and chemises were worn under gowns, together with multiple layers of petticoats. The arrival of the crinoline meant far fewer petticoats were required to maintain the desired fullness and volume of skirts. Dresses with a solid bodice were worn during the day, and a low-neckline off-the-shoulder look was typical for evening wear.
By the 1860s, skirts were flatter at the front and projected out more at the back. Wide pagoda sleeves and high necklines with lace or tatted collars became popular. The low-neckline evening dresses were worn with short gloves, fingerless lace or crocheted mitts. In America, the influence of civil war military-style decoration appeared in civilian clothing.
In the 1870s, tea gowns were worn for entertaining at home and didn’t require corsets. Bustles replaced crinolines for supporting skirts, as a slimmer style came into vogue. Evening dresses were very tight around the corseted torso.
During the 1880s, bustles initially became less prominent, but sizes grew again later in the decade. Greater affluence brought more leisure time with fashion catering to riding and walking pursuits.
High collars, held in place by collar stays, and stiff steel boning characterized the 1890s. Crinolines and bustles were no more. Instead, in came the tiny wasp waist.
Vote yea or nay for your favorites below …
Vote for your favorites
Scroll through the dresses, select up to 3 of your favorites (click again to de-select), and then click the Vote button at the bottom.
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield (1804 – 1881), was twice the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during Queen Victoria’s reign.
He is remembered for his influential voice in world affairs, associating the Conservative party with the glory and power of the British Empire.
And he was the favorite Prime Minister of Queen Victoria, who told her oldest daughter,
“The present man will do well. He is very peculiar … but very clever and sensible … He is full of poetry, romance and chivalry. When he knelt down to kiss my hand, he said ‘In loving loyalty and faith.'”
Here are 10 timeless nuggets of wisdom from Benjamin Disraeli—as relevant today as they were during Queen Victoria’s reign and long before.
The first is my favorite Disraeli quote that finds a happy balance between optimism and pessimism. We know things can go wrong, but if we prepare for that, we can maintain an optimistic view of life.
Hope
Benjamin Disraeli by H Lenthall, c. 1870
Change
There is nothing more certain than change. Technological change is particularly apparent in our modern age. Disraeli witnessed huge advances in technology and industrialization during the Victorian Era. Just as we accept a change in the weather and prepare accordingly, if we accept change in our lives and prepare as Disraeli suggests, we can manage and deal with change more effectively (Amazon affiliate link).
Changeable Weather by Gustave Léonard de Jonghe
Travel
Travel helps open our minds to diversity. The world is full of different lands, different architecture, different foods, different people. Travel helps us realize that although we are all different, we are all uniquely important.
The Travelling Companions by Augustus Leopold Egg – 1862
Heroes
Disraeli’s advice on how to be a hero—believe you can do it. Belief in ourselves and our ability to do great things is a prerequisite to being one of life’s heroes.
It pays to dream big—many of the world’s most successful people started with a big dream.
Florence Nightingale, Wellcome Trust
Knowledge
“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
—Socrates
When we realize we don’t have all the facts, we’re prompted to discover them. With today’s web and search technologies, it’s much easier and faster to find information that helps us arrive at the facts and increase our knowledge.
Still life with books by L. Block (1848-1901)
Audacity
One of the greatest examples of audacity was Washington’s crossing of the Delaware River during the American Revolutionary War in 1776.
Despite bad weather and icy, treacherous water, Washington led a column of Continental Army troops to a surprise victory against the Hessian forces at the Battle of Trenton.
Washington’s audacity turned the tide for the Continental Army that only a week earlier was on the verge of collapse. It inspired soldiers to serve longer and attracted new recruits.
Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851
Criticism
It’s human nature to be critical. Churchill thought that although criticism is unpleasant, it is necessary.
American writer Elbert Hubbard found a solution for avoiding criticism: “do nothing, say nothing, and be nothing”.
But not all criticism is fair, warranted, or justified. Disraeli’s words strike at the heart of the extra care needed for constructive criticism—to improve an outcome by offering valid and well-reasoned options in a friendly manner.
Escaping Criticism by Pere Borrell del Caso, 1874
Courage
Where courage is the strength to face our fears, bullying is a smokescreen to hide them.
Disraeli advocated courage, not bullying. As a child, he struggled against antisemitism, but his courage and pride in his Jewish heritage saved him from humiliation.
Courage is Half the Battle by John Henry Dolph (American, 1835 – 1903)
Conduct
Disraeli suffered defeat and loss in his life through circumstance, but he never felt bitter or unfriendly to those who rejected him. He swallowed his pride and kept the characteristically British “stiff upper lip”.
Exemplary behavior by Horatio Henry Couldery (United Kingdom, 1832 – 1893)
Love
Disraeli reminds us that the most powerful force on earth is love. It is what gives life its purpose and its continuity.
Mother and Child in an Interior by Peter Ilsted – 1898
Recommended books on Disraeli’s nuggets of wisdom:
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In a dusty old Parisian apartment in 2010, a startling discovery was made.
No one had set foot on the premises for 70 years.
Hidden, as if in a time capsule, was a portrait by the Italian artist Giovanni Boldini.
It was of Marthe de Florian, a French actress and demimondaine during the Belle Époque. She was known for having famous lovers including a string of French premiers—Georges Clemenceau, Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, Paul Deschanel, and Gaston Doumergue.
The apartment belonged to de Florian’s granddaughter, who left Paris to live in the South of France at the outbreak of World War 2, and never returned.
Evidence of the painting’s authenticity lay in a love-letter and a biographical reference dating it to 1888, when the actress was 24.
Boldini is best known for his dazzling, elegant depictions of fashionable high society women.
A 1933 Time magazine article called Boldini the “Master of Swish”—one look at his striking, fluid brushstrokes explains why.
He was preeminently the artist of the Edwardian era, of the pompadour, the champagne supper and the ribbon-trimmed chemiseTime Magazine.
Born in Ferrara in 1842, the son of a painter of religious subjects, he moved to Florence to study painting when he was 20 and met the “Macchiaioli”—Italian precursors to Impressionism. It was their influence that set him on a course initially as a landscape artist, then as a portraitist.
On moving to London, he found fame painting society members including the Duchess of Westminster and Lady Holland.
From 1872, he lived in Paris, where he befriended Edgar Degas and became the most fashionable portraitist in Paris.
He lived to be 88, having married only two years earlier. At his wedding breakfast, he made a little speech:
It is not my fault if I am so old, it’s something which has happened to me all at once.
Vote for your favorites from the “master of swish” as you listen to The Swan by Charles-Camille Saint-Saëns.
Miss Bell by Giovanni Boldini, 1903.
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The word “Ballroom” is derived from the word ball, which in turn originates from the Latin word ballare, meaning ‘to dance’.
In times past, ballroom dancing was social dancing for the privileged, leaving folk dancing for the lower classes at dance halls.
Court Ball in Vienna by Wilhelm Gause, 1900
Dance Hall by F. Famos, 1900
From the late 19th century until the early 1960s, the dance hall was the popular forerunner of the discothèque or nightclub.
Dance pavilion on Cedar Point, Ohio, built in 1882
Sometimes you had to start small …
Klondyke Dance Hall and saloon, Pay Streak, Alaska Yukon Pacific Exposition, Seattle, Washington, 1909.
Balroom dancing hall of ‘Bal Bullier’, Paris
Miami University Junior Prom, 1912
Financed by Henry Ford, the dance hall at Boblo Island Amusement Park in Amherstburg, Ontario, Canada was the largest in North America at the time of its completion in 1913.
Designed by Detroit architect Albert Khan, and constructed of steel and stone, the east side of the building featured a tall cathedral-like glass wall.
Holding 5,000 dancers at full capacity, it featured one of the world’s largest “orchestrions” from the Welte company—a self-playing orchestra 16 ft tall and 14 ft wide, with 419 pipes and percussion section.
Dancing pavilion at Bo-Lo, Bois Blanc Island, Detroit River, 1913
By the 1940’s, most towns and cities in the United States had at least one dance hall, with live musicians playing a range of music from strict ballroom to big band, swing and jazz. Glenn Miller was one of the most famous dance hall musicians of the period.
In Britain during the late Victorian period, dance halls for the general populace were still referred to as ballrooms.
Tower Ballroom at Blackpool, in the north-west county of Lancashire, was one of the most famous ballrooms of the late 19th century and is still in use today.
Its 120 ft by 120 ft dance floor is made up of 30,602 blocks of mahogany, oak and walnut. Above the stage is an inscription from the poem Venus and Adonis by William Shakespeare:
“Bid me discourse, I will enchant thine ear.”
View of the whole of the dance floor in the Tower Ballroom, Blackpool, England
Spanish Hall inside the Winter Gardens, Blackpool, Lancashire, England
After World War 2, it was time to start having fun again. British couples cautiously transitioned from traditional ballroom to more adventurous forms of dancing like Jive.
A couple at a British dance hall try out the new ‘jive’ steps, whilst the rest of the hall continue with ‘old-style’ ballroom dancing, 1945.
In North America, Square Dancing became ever more popular. Brought over with European settlers, it traditionally involved four couples (eight dancers) arranged in a square, with one couple on each side, facing the middle of the square.
Square Dancing at North Branch Y.M.C.A., Montreal, Canada
From the grandest of the grand ballrooms to the humble town dance hall, we all love to dance, don’t we?
Princess Diana dancing with John Travolta in the entrance hall at the White House
We’re going to journey back to the Victorian era again, and imagine that we’re working-class folk living in Paris who can’t go to a really posh ball. We make do with Sunday afternoons at Moulin de la Galette in the Montmartre district, where we dress up and enjoy dancing, drinking, and eating galettes into the evening.
Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1876
When we get home though, we can dance into the night inside our imagination … with a little help from our new toy from England—the phenakistoscope.
This was an early animation device that uses a spinning disc attached to a handle. Arrayed around the disc’s center is a series of drawings, and cut through it are equally spaced radial slits.
When we spin the disc and look through the moving slits into a mirror, we’re magically transported back to the dancehall …
Press play and dance the night away …
Images on a disc which when spun gives the illusion of a couple dancing.
Victorian ladies fashion is often characterized as ornate and covering the whole body. For men, it was formal and rigid.
We know from period paintings, fashion plate illustrations, and photographs that Victorians wore multiple layers of clothing, even during the summer months.
Women would often wear up to five layers—petticoats, corsets, and chemises worn under gowns, with various accessories such as shawls, gloves, and hats to complete the ensemble.
The Empress Eugenie Surrounded by her Ladies in Waiting by Franz Xavier Winterhalter 1855
Too Early by James Tissot 1873
Fashion Plate August 1865
Ladies’ dresses from 1870-1875. The ladies are both wearing hoop-skirted gowns of the post-Civil War period. The woman at left is wearing a ribboned bonnet, while the other has an elaborate hat to match the patterned silk of her gown. A long cape falls from the shoulders of the first, while a shawl lies nearby the second. The solid, dark-colored dress of the first woman is heavily contrasted with the patterned dress of the second woman.
Men also had to wear several garments including wool pants, suit coats, waistcoats, ties and long sleeved shirts. Top hats were generally worn by upper class gentlemen and bowler hats by the working class.
Victorian Gentlemen from 1840s through 1880s.
A group of men posing for a portrait c.1890, all wearing 3-piece suits.
Victorian women and men continued to wear multiple layers of clothing through the summer months, albeit often made from more lightweight fabrics.
So the big mystery is how did they keep cool?
Here are 10 ways Victorians managed to beat the heat.
1. Covered Porches
Covered porches helped reduce the amount of direct sunlight hitting the outside walls and downstairs windows.
Porch at the Old Tampa Bay Hotel, a National Historic Landmark, now part of the University of Tampa, Florida.
2. Awnings
Awnings were widely used on hotels and shop fronts to provide a cooler environment—both for those inside the store and window-shopping passersby.
3. Iced Drinks and Ice Cream
The ice trade allowed for a whole new category of chilled drinks to be created. By mid-19th century in America, water was usually served chilled.
Iced milk and German lager also used ice. Drinks such as sherry-cobblers and mint juleps were invented that could only be made using crushed ice.
Ice-cream could now be produced on a large scale. In 1850s Britain, the growing Italian community in London popularised ice cream with the general public.
4. Keeping Liquids Cool for Longer
Although pitchers weren’t new, the Victorian innovation was metal and porcelain liners to keep liquids inside cool.
Another idea to help handle the heavy pitchers when serving was to mount them on a tilt-swivel platform.
5. Hand-Held Fans
At the Ball by Berthe Morisot, 1875.
Purpose-made hand-held fans were shaped like a sector of a circle and made of paper or feathers mounted on slats which revolved around a pivot so that it could be closed when not in use.
Higher class Victorians also used highly decorative hand-held rigid screen fans to shield a lady’s face against the glare of the sun.
6. Air Circulation
The Quiet Hour by Albert Chevallier Tayler, 1913.
The Victorians understood how air circulated through a house. They would open windows upstairs to release hotter air that rises, and this would draw in cooler air from the garden with its shade from plants and trees.
By opening windows in the evening, they could replenish the air inside the house with much cooler air.
7. Heavy Curtains and High Ceilings
The Grey Drawing Room by Albert Chevallier Tayler, 1917.
Heavy curtains would be drawn during the day in rooms facing the sun.
Since hot air rises and cooler air sinks, high ceilings allowed the hottest air to rise into the uppermost space in a room so that people were essentially living in the coolest air.
8. House Plants
Parlor of the Whittemore House , Dupont Circle, Washington DC.
According to the University of Vermont, when plants release moisture into the air in a warm room, it can reduce the temperature by as much as 10 degrees.
9. Parks and Gardens
Central Park by Frederick Childe Hassam, 1892.
Parks must have seemed like oases to the working and middle classes. A wonderful place to cool off.
Trees absorb heat, and ponds and lakes would help cool the park temperature further.
The Victorians built many parks in major cities throughout the UK, but perhaps the most famous park built during the Victorian era was Central Park in Manhattan.
A proposal for European-style ornate entrances to Central Park was opposed in order to signal “that all were welcome, regardless of rank or wealth.”
10. Hats, Parasols, and Shade
Woman Sitting with a Parasol by Aristide Maillol, 1895.
Since the sun heats the earth through radiation, one of the best defences against the summer heat for a Victorian lady was protection from the sun’s rays.
Wide-brimmed hats and parasols not only protected, but were essential fashion accessories.
And after a stroll in the sun, what better way to cool down than to let nature protect—with its cooling canopy of shade.
The term “Princess” is most often used as the regal rank of a daughter or granddaughter of a king or queen, or the wife of a prince.
It is the feminine form of prince, derived from Old French meaning “noble lord” and from Latin princeps, meaning “first man, chief leader; ruler, sovereign”.
I knew what my job was; it was to go out and meet the people and love them.Princess Diana
Old English had no female equivalent of “Prince”, “Earl”, or any royal or noble title aside from Queen.
A monarch’s daughter would be called “the Lady” followed by her first name. For example, the Lady Elizabeth or the Lady Mary—both daughters of King Henry VIII.
The term Princess started to become popular in Britain in the 18th century.
I don’t want to be a princess who sits on the sidelines; I want to be present and actively involved. It’s a life with a purpose.Charlene, Princess of Monaco
George I’s children, grandchildren, and male-line great-grandchildren were automatically titled “Prince or Princess of Great Britain and Ireland” and styled “Royal Highness” (in the case of children and grandchildren) or “Highness” (in the case of male-line great-grandchildren).
In European countries, a woman who marries a prince will almost always become a princess, but a man who marries a princess will almost never become a prince.
Today, the term “lady” is often used as a civil term of respect for a woman, as is “gentleman” for a man.
But there was a time when its purpose was to address women of high social class or status.
During the Middle Ages, princesses or daughters of the blood royal were usually known by their first names with “The Lady” prefixed, e.g. The Lady Elizabeth.
The Renaissance lady is described by Italian courtier, author, and diplomat Baldassare Castiglione (1478 – 1529) in his handbook for the nobility, The Book of the Courtier, (Amazon affiliate link) in which he writes that she was the equivalent of the courtier, with the same virtues of mind and equivalent education.
Castiglione writes that although culture was an accomplishment for the noblewoman and man alike—used to charm others as much as to develop the self—for the lady, charm had become the primary occupation and aim.
knowledge of letters, of music, of painting, and . . . how to dance and how to be festive.
La Mode Illustrée, 1865
Whereas the courtier’s chief task is defined as the profession of arms, a Lady’s pleasing affability is becoming above all else, whereby she will be able to entertain graciously every kind of man.
By Victorian times, ladies etiquette had become a fine art. Several handbooks provided advice on the complexities and nuances, none other than Florence Hartley’s The Ladies’ Book of Etiquette and Manual of Politeness (Amazon affiliate link) advises that a lady should have knowledge of the forms and customs of society and how to show the gentle courtesies of life.
Emphasizing just how important dress was to the Victorian lady, is this Florence Hartley quote:
‘A lady is never so well dressed as when you cannot remember what she wears.’ No truer remark than the above was ever made. Such an effect can only be produced where every part of the dress harmonizes entirely with the other parts, where each color or shade suits the wearer’s style completely, and where there is perfect neatness in each detail. One glaring color, or conspicuous article, would entirely mar the beauty of such a dress.
La Mode Illustrée, 1863
Merriam Webster’s Dictionary describes the formal use of “lady” as a title of nobility:
any of various titled women in Great Britain —used as the customary title of (1) a marchioness, countess, viscountess, or baroness or (2) the wife of a knight, baronet, member of the peerage, or one having the courtesy title of lord and used as a courtesy title for the daughter of a duke, marquess, or earl.
Here are twelve portraits of titled ladies from the Georgian, Victorian, and Edwardian eras.
Just as we bury our faces in our mobile devices on the morning commute, so too did Victorians with the latest penny fiction.
The increased literacy rate from schooling, cheaper production, and broader availability of books through libraries all benefited reading.
The Dame’s School by Thomas Faed RA HRSA – 1879.
Towards the latter half of the 19th century, gas and electric lighting also meant that reading after dark didn’t have to be by candlelight or messy oil lamps.
Woman Reading by Candlelight by Peter Ilsted (1861 – 1933)
Novels were often serialized in monthly parts, making them more easily accessible and shared. Weekly or monthly segments often ended on a “cliff-hanger” to keep readers hooked and anticipating the next installment.
Perhaps the best know serialized novels were the “Penny Dreadfuls”. Costing just one old penny, they focused on the exploits of detectives, criminals, or supernatural entities.
Penny Dreadful from 1860 on the popular outlaw Dick Turpin.
The price of new books—often only available as a set of three—was out of reach for most working class people, so they borrowed from circulating libraries such as Mudie’s (founded 1842), which dispatched books all over Britain for a modest subscription fee.
For the wealthier classes who could afford first editions, reading from their own collection would be an everyday occurrence.
In the Library by Auguste Toulmouche – 1872.
Six months after the original publication, books became cheaper, being issued as single volumes. And the growth of the rail network helped make novels cheaper still at railway stations.
There would always be something new to read for a long journey.
The Travelling Companions by Augustus Leopold Egg – 1862.
Fiction was thought to hold influential power over readers. George Eliot wrote that people are,
imitative beings. We cannot, at least those who ever read to any purpose at all . . . help being modified by the ideas that pass through our minds.
The 18th-century view that reading contemporary novels was a time-wasting leisure activity gave way to 19th-century ideals on their ability to educate.
Victorians believed that although novels lacked the cultural seriousness of classical texts, they did nevertheless bring awareness of historical periods and places that might help bring about social reform and develop Christian moral values.
By the mid-1800’s, the most widely read novel in England was the anti-slavery Uncle Toms Cabin of 1852 by American Harriet Beecher Stowe.
Interrupted Reading by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot – circa 1870.
But if novels could influence for the good, they could also influence for the bad.
Novels were thought to corrupt the working classes by giving them ideas above their station or encouraging them to emulate the life of fictional criminals.
Cultural opinion leaders were particularly concerned about fiction’s effect on women. They argued that women were more susceptible to excitement and often over-identified with characters in novels that could make them more dissatisfied with their lives.
Forbidden Books by Alexander Mark Rossi – 1897.
Thank goodness the novelists themselves started to push back against the disillusioned ideology of the critics. They assumed readers could make up their own minds and did not need protecting. George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, George Gissing, and George Moore trusted their readers’ sense of responsibility.
Left: George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) by Frederick William Burton, 1864. Right: Thomas hardy by William Strang, 1893.
By the late 19th century, novels had become a pleasurable pastime with the freedom to read anywhere.
Summer Sunlight by Frederick Childe Hassam – 1892.
James Tissot (1836 – 1902), was a French painter and illustrator.
He painted scenes of Paris and London society—and especially fashionably dressed women.
Click here to continue learning about James Tissot
Self-portrait in 1865.
Born in Nantes, France, his father was a drapery merchant and his mother designed hats. Their involvement in the fashion industry influenced his artistic flair for painting the finer details of women’s clothing.
Tissot enrolled in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts to study in the studios of Hippolyte Flandrin and Louis Lamothe—both known for their decorative art skills. It was here that Tissot became acquainted with Edgar Degas, Edouard Manet and James Whistler.
In 1863, Tissot found the niche that would bring him critical acclaim and wealth: portraits depicting modern life.
He moved to London in 1871, where he quickly developed his reputation for painting elegantly dressed, fashionable women.
The Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists quotes Edmond de Goncourt in 1874 as writing that Tissot had ‘a studio with a waiting room where, at all times, there is iced champagne at the disposal of visitors”.
Tissot’s popularity among wealthy British industrialists gave him an income usually reserved for the top strata of society.
a studio with a waiting room where, at all times, there is iced champagne at the disposal of visitorsPhilip J. Waller.
Tissot painted elegant ladies from high society in enchanting everyday scenes. Vote for your favorites from this list of 20 beautiful Tissot paintings.
Redlands, in San Bernardino County, is one of the oldest cities in California. Named for its rich, red soil, it sits halfway between Los Angeles and Palm Springs, in the shadow of Southern California’s highest peaks.
This is citrus country, with lush groves and a temperate climate. Once called the “Orange Empire”, Redlands is now known as the “Jewel of the Inland Empire”.
Orange groves once covered the valley.
For almost 75 years, the city was the center of the largest navel orange producing region in the world. The navel orange became a symbol of the Eden-like dream that was Southern California.
During the 1937–38 growing season, the city produced over 4,200 railcars of navel oranges and 1,300 cars of Valencia oranges.
At the turn of the 20th century, Redlands was the “Palm Springs” of the next century, with roses being planted along many city thoroughfares.
People built their dream homes in whatever style they liked. Victorians sat alongside Colonials, Classic Boxes and Craftsmen homes.
Although many old homes were pulled down over the years, Redlands still has some beautiful late Victorians such as the Kimberly Crest House, The Edwards Mansion, and the Morey Mansion.
Kimberly Crest House and Gardens is a French château-style Victorian mansion listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Later purchased by J. Alfred Kimberly of Kimberly-Clark fame, the Kimberly Crest House was originally built by Cornelia Ann Jordan, who came from a wealthy east coast family.
When tuberculosis took the lives of her husband and four of her six daughters, she moved to California to try to rebuild her life. She purchased 3 1/2 acres and had this beautiful home built—styled after a château she had seen in France.
Kimberly Crest House and Gardens.
There were no mortgages in those days. People simply announced to the world that they had arrived by building their houses when they had enough money and paying for them in cash. The owners of Victorian homes often painted them in bright and flashy colors to stand out from other wealthy neighbors.
Built in 1890, the Morey Mansion was built using the funds from the sale of Sarah Morey’s citrus nursery.
Sarah Morey moved to Redlands in 1882 with her husband David, who worked as a carpenter and helped built the dam at Big Bear Lake. With seeds from local growers, Sarah started a citrus nursery which became one of the largest in the area.
Located on the bluffs overlooking San Timoteo Canyon, Morey Mansion is known for its commanding view.
Morey Mansion
Inside the Morey Mansion.
In 1890, one of the founders of Redlands, James S. Edwards built a boarding house, which later became his family residence.
It is now a popular wedding location.
The Edwards Mansion
Built by Charles Kendall Adams, who lived in the house only 13 days before he died in July 1902, Kendall House (below) has block walls fashioned of stone by Italian stone masons.
Adams was an American educator and historian. He served as the second president of Cornell University from 1885 until 1892, and as president of the University of Wisconsin from 1892 until 1901.
Kendall House
Dr. Benjamin Barton built the Barton Mansion (below) originally as a ranch and vineyard. Recently restored to its former glory, it is one of the oldest buildings in the Inland Empire. Neglected for many years, it developed a reputation for being haunted.
Barton Mansion
Other great buildings include the A. K. Smiley Public Library. Built by philanthropist Albert K. Smiley in 1898, it includes a variety of architectural styles. The tile roof and parapets atop its side arcades are Mission Revival-influenced, whereas the battlement and curves in the parapet are of a Moorish design. Still more styles are evident in the arcade’s arches, the windows, and the roof ridge, which have classical, Gothic, Spanish Romanesque, and Oriental elements.
The library houses a collection of native tribe artifacts donated by steel magnate Andrew Carnegie.
A. K. Smiley Public Library in 1900 (top) and today (showing extension)
Another great building is the Redlands train station, designed in 1909 by architect Arthur Brown, Jr., who designed many of San Francisco’s prominent buildings such as the City Hall, War Memorial Opera House and Coit Tower.
With pristine neighborhoods and dramatic mountain backdrops, the Santa Fe Railroad operated excursion trains along a route through the Redland orange groves, across the Santa Ana River, and back into San Bernardino, advertising it as the “Kite Route” due to its shape.
Redland Train Station in 1909 (top) and today.
Fine building continues to this day, mostly of the residential variety.
Only the two world wars could prevent the Henley Royal Regatta from running every year since 1839 on the River Thames in Oxfordshire, England.
The Henley Regatta rowing event became “Royal” in 1851 with HRH Prince Albert’s royal patronage.
Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, England
Columbia College team, 1878
Each summer, for five days from Wednesday to Sunday over the first weekend in July, the head-to-head races take place at Henley Reach—a naturally straight stretch of river over a mile long (2,112 metres).
Only two boats compete in each race, starting every five minutes.
Sixteen separate trophies are awarded, the most prestigious being the Grand Challenge Cup.
The first international competitors arrived in 1878 from the United States and Canada, with a team from Columbia College winning the “Visitors’ Challenge Cup”.
Regarded as part of the English social season, the regatta maintains traditional dress codes within reserved enclosures.
The Race of the Century
One of the most famous races was in 1895, when nationally renowned American rower Charles E. Courtney coached the Cornell varsity team for the Grand Challenge Cup at Henley Royal Regatta—the most important race in the rowing world at the time.
Courtney had developed quite a reputation at the Intercollegiate Rowing Association, with 14 of 24 varsity titles and several new world records.
In the first heat at Henley, Courtney’s team faced the London Leander Club—the favorites to win. Composed of Oxford and Cambridge University oarsmen, Leander were four-time defending champions, having won the Cup a total of seven times.
Cornell Henley Crew and coach Charles E. Courtney, 1895
This would be the race of the century—setting Cornell’s short, fast stroke against Leander’s long and sweeping stroke.
The umpire asked if the crews were ready. “Yes”, said the Cornell coxswain. “No”, said two of the Leander crew.
But the umpire had not heard Leander’s “no” and gave the order to start.
Cornell Varsity team.
Cornell shot off the starting line, but only half of Leander were rowing.
Leander stopped rowing and their coxswain protested loudly to the umpire, expecting it to be a false start.
When the umpire did not stop the race, Leander knew they had lost. Cornell rowed leisurely to the finish and won the race.
Marred by controversy, the Cornell team were labelled unsportsmanlike and were hounded by the British Press. Even the Chicago Associated Press gave them a hard time.
Cornell would go on to lose in dramatic style against Trinity Hall from Cambridge, with one Cornell member sustaining injuries as his oars missed the water and he almost fell out of the boat.
A Brief History in Pictures
Landscape with Rainbow — Henley-on-Thames by Jan Siberechts – circa 1690Henley Regatta by Alfred de Breanski, Sr. – 1881Four-in-hand horse-drawn coach to Henley regatta – lithograph – c. 1852The Regatta course, Henley Regatta, Henley-on-Thames, between 1890 and 1900. Photochrom.Henley Regatta by Friedrich Stahl 1899
Leander Club v University of Pennsylvania, at Henley Regatta – B&W photo – July 1901Sport Nautique de Gand winning the Grand Challenge Cup in 1907Netherlands — winners 1909 – Koninklijke Roeivereniging Club GentThe annual summer regatta at Henley on the River Thames shortly before the outbreak of the First World WarHenley by Sir John Lavery, R.A. – circa 1920
Victorian architecture is characterized by an eclecticism that moves from one building or part of a building to the other, describing features and influences and sometimes even redefining trends.
An example from the United States is the Winchester Mystery House in San Jose, California, once the home of Sarah Winchester, the widow of gun magnate William Wirt Winchester.
The architectural curiosities and numerous oddities like doors or stairs to nowhere, windows into other rooms, and stairs with odd-sized risers, are typical of the Victorian search for identity.
Names and phrases characteristic of periods or countries were often used to describe and label the multiple architectural styles or influences—Renaissance, Gothic, Corinthian, Tudor-Elizabethan, Baroque, Tuscan, Moorish—as Victorians searched in vain for a style that defined the age.
Harlaxton Manor in Lincolnshire, England, combines elements of Jacobean and Elizabethan with symmetrical Baroque.
Victorians had eccentric and sometimes exotic tastes. They loved what became known as “bric-a-brac”—small decorative objects of ornamental or sentimental value—that helped define the image of English coziness and charm.
Perhaps this helps explain the elaborate decoration in unexpected places like Victorian sewer systems, public lavatories, or post boxes.
In London, Victorian hopes and utopian ideas melded with social and moral desperation—Booth’s Salvation Army on the one hand and the depravity of East End slums and Jack the Ripper on the other.
This melting pot of ideas was reflected in Victorian architectural styles across the world from the romanticism evoked by Queen Anne and Italianate to the more austere Gothic Revival. Here are six of the most popular styles:
Queen Anne
Rooted in the English Queen Anne style, named after the monarch reigning from 1702 – 1714, the American Queen Anne loosely describes a range of picturesque, romantic buildings featuring textured surfaces, decorative patterns of wood or stone, and rainbow pastel colors. Other features include polygonal towers, overhanging eaves, balconies, pedimented porches, and painted balustrades.
Charles and Anna Drain House, Drain, Oregon. Credit Visitor7
Italianate
Inspired by villas in Northern Italy. Characteristics include rectangular massing of the body, low-pitched roofs with elaborately carved supporting brackets under the eaves, and windows with elaborate surrounds.
Robert Patrick Fitzgerald House, WI. Credit James Steakley
Stick/Eastlake
A transitional style between Gothic Revival and Queen Anne, featuring small planks placed on top of exterior walls. Sometimes has an overhanging second-story porch similar to a Swiss chalet. Examples with additional decoration near the top of the house are called Eastlake—after British furniture designer Charles Eastlake.
The Ann Starrett Mansion, Port Townsend, Washington. Credit A. Davey
Folk
In contrast to other styles that were designed by professional architects for the monied classes, Folk Victorian was common among the aspiring middle class, who designed their own houses or had a local carpenter do it. They combined elements from fashionable styles with some unique ideas and tended to be smaller and plainer than those of the wealthy.
Late 1860s Folk Victorian, Prince William County, VA. Credit Jerrye & Roy Klotz, MD
Second Empire
Distinguished by mansard roofs named after French architect Francois Mansart, with pierced dormer windows having elaborate surrounds. Victorians often added corner quoins, belt courses, and other decoration.
1884 Robison Mansion Second Empire, CO. Credit Jeffrey Beall
Gothic Revival
Inspired by Medieval Gothic cathedrals, characterized by steeply pitched roofs with vergeboard trim along edges, pointed-arch windows, high dormers, lancet windows, and vertical board and batten siding.
Picturesque architecture, popular in the later 19th century, combined elements from various styles to create a whimsical and romantic visual effect, which perfectly captures the essence of examples like the Gingerbread House in Savannah, Georgia, and the Wedding Cake House in Kennebunk, Maine.
Gingerbread House in Savannah. Credit PhotoartelWedding Cake House, Kennebunk, Maine
But yesterday a naked sod The dandies sneered from Rotten Row, And cantered o’er it to and fro: And see ’tis done! As though ’twere by a wizard’s rod A blazing arch of lucid glass Leaps like a fountain from the grass To meet the sun!
A quiet green but few days since, With cattle browsing in the shade: And here are lines of bright arcade In order raised! A palace as for fairy Prince, A rare pavilion, such as man Saw never since mankind began, And built and glazed!
A peaceful place it was but now, And lo! within its shining streets A multitude of nations meets; A countless throng I see beneath the crystal bow, And Gaul and German, Russ and Turk, Each with his native handiwork And busy tongue.
I felt a thrill of love and awe To mark the different garb of each, The changing tongue, the various speech Together blent: A thrill, methinks, like His who saw ‘All people dwelling upon earth Praising our God with solemn mirth And one consent.’
High Sovereign, in your Royal state, Captains, and chiefs, and councillors, Before the lofty palace doors Are open set,— Hush ere you pass the shining gate: Hush! ere the heaving curtain draws, And let the Royal pageant pause A moment yet.
People and prince a silence keep! Bow coronet and kingly crown. Helmet and plume, bow lowly down, The while the priest, Before the splendid portal step, (While still the wondrous banquet stays,) From Heaven supreme a blessing prays Upon the feast.
Then onwards let the triumph march; Then let the loud artillery roll, And trumpets ring, and joy-bells toll, And pass the gate. Pass underneath the shining arch, ‘Neath which the leafy elms are green; Ascend unto your throne, O Queen! And take your state.
Behold her in her Royal place; A gentle lady; and the hand That sways the sceptre of this land, How frail and weak! Soft is the voice, and fair the face: She breathes amen to prayer and hymn; No wonder that her eyes are dim, And pale her cheek.
This moment round her empire’s shores The winds of Austral winter sweep, And thousands lie in midnight sleep At rest to-day. Oh! awful is that crown of yours, Queen of innumerable realms Sitting beneath the budding elms Of English May!
A wondrous scepter ’tis to bear: Strange mystery of God which set Upon her brow yon coronet,— The foremost crown Of all the world, on one so fair! That chose her to it from her birth, And bade the sons of all the earth To her bow down.
The representatives of man Here from the far Antipodes, And from the subject Indian seas, In Congress meet; From Afric and from Hindustan, From Western continent and isle, The envoys of her empire pile Gifts at her feet;
Our brethren cross the Atlantic tides, Loading the gallant decks which once Roared a defiance to our guns, With peaceful store; Symbol of peace, their vessel rides!* O’er English waves float Star and Stripe, And firm their friendly anchors gripe The father shore!
From Rhine and Danube, Rhone and Seine, As rivers from their sources gush, The swelling floods of nations rush, And seaward pour: From coast to coast in friendly chain, With countless ships we bridge the straits, And angry ocean separates Europe no more.
From Mississippi and from Nile— From Baltic, Ganges, Bosphorous, In England’s ark assembled thus Are friend and guest. Look down the mighty sunlit aisle, And see the sumptuous banquet set, The brotherhood of nations met. Around the feast!
Along the dazzling colonnade, Far as the straining eye can gaze, Gleam cross and fountain, bell and vase, In vistas bright; And statues fair of nymph and maid, And steeds and pards and Amazons, Writhing and grappling in the bronze, In endless fight.
To deck the glorious roof and dome, To make the Queen a canopy, The peaceful hosts of industry Their standards bear. Yon are the works of Brahmin loom; On such a web of Persian thread The desert Arab bows his head And cries his prayer.
Look yonder where the engines toil: These England’s arms of conquest are, The trophies of her bloodless war: Brave weapons these. Victorians over wave and soil, With these she sails, she weaves, she tills, Pierces the everlasting hills And spans the seas.
The engine roars upon its race, The shuttle whirs the woof, The people hum from floor to roof, With Babel tongue. The fountain in the basin plays, The chanting organ echoes clear, An awful chorus ’tis to hear, A wondrous song!
Swell, organ, swell your trumpet blast, March, Queen and Royal pageant, march By splendid aisle and springing arch Of this fair Hall: And see! above the fabric vast, God’s boundless Heaven is bending blue, God’s peaceful sunlight’s beaming through, And shines o’er all.
Travel
Florence Nightingale, Wellcome Trust
Still life with books by L. Block (1848-1901)
Escaping Criticism by Pere Borrell del Caso, 1874
Courage is Half the Battle by John Henry Dolph (American, 1835 – 1903)
Exemplary behavior by Horatio Henry Couldery (United Kingdom, 1832 – 1893)
Mother and Child in an Interior by Peter Ilsted – 1898
