Wernigerode Castle in the Harz Mountains of Germany

Towering 300 ft above the town of Wernigerode in the Harz Mountains of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, stands a romantic baroque castle that was once a medieval fortress.

Wernigerode Castle aerial view. Credit Deutsche Fotothek
The castle, Wernigerode, Hartz, Germany in 1895
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Andreas Tille
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Andreas Tille

Originally built as a Romanesque hunting lodge for 12th-century German counts, its tumultuous history included several rebuilds in completely new architectural styles.

Wernigerode Castle. Credit Voyage48
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Voyage48

Evolving from Romanesque, the Gothic style appeared during the 14th century and can be seen depicted in the large arched windows.

Wernigerode Castle. Credit Klugschnacker
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Klugschnacker
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Klugschnacker
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Klugschnacker

Strolling around the castle ramparts reveals stunning vistas over Wernigerode town.

Wernigerode Castle. Credit Klugschnacker
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Klugschnacker

Morphing into a Renaissance fortress in the 1500s, Wernigerode Castle was heavily damaged during the Thirty Years’ War of the 17th century.

Wernigerode Castle. Credit fanglan (3)

One of the longest and most destructive conflicts in human history, the Thirty Years’ War was the deadliest European religious war, resulting in eight million fatalities.

The Battle of Rocroi (1643) by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau
The Battle of Rocroi (1643) by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau
Wernigerode Castle. Credit fanglan
Wernigerode Castle. Credit fanglan
Cannon at Wernigerode Castle. Credit Timur Y
Cannon at Wernigerode Castle. Credit Timur Y

Devastating entire regions, the war spread famine and disease, imposed severe hardships on the inhabitants of occupied territories, and bankrupted most of the combatant powers.

The capture of Rheinfelden by the troops of the Duke of Feria, 1633 by Vincenzo Carducci
The capture of Rheinfelden by the troops of the Duke of Feria, 1633 by Vincenzo Carducci

Despite several renovations and later additions, mostly between 1862 and 1893, Wernigerode Castle retains its original medieval gothic tower and spiral stone staircase.

Wernigerode Castle. Credit fanglan
Wernigerode Castle. Credit fanglan
Wernigerode Castle staircase. Credit Luha
Wernigerode Castle staircase. Credit Luha

Renowned Vienna architect Friedrich von Schmidt built the chapel inside of Wernigerode Castle in 1880.

Chapel of St. Pantaleon and Anna in Wernigerode castle. Credit Stefan Schäfer
Chapel of St. Pantaleon and Anna in Wernigerode castle. Credit Stefan Schäfer

Wernigerode Castle’s rooms feature ornate chandeliers, wood carvings, and tapestries.

Wernigerode Castle. Credit Romantikgeist
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Romantikgeist
Wernigerode Castle. Credit a.froese
Wernigerode Castle. Credit a.froese
Wernigerode Castle Felmish Tapestry. Credit Luha
Wernigerode Castle Felmish Tapestry. Credit Luha

Adorning the marketplace are colorful medieval buildings, including the town hall with timber face dating from 1498.

Wernigerode's Gothic Town Hall. Credit Klugschnacker
Wernigerode’s Gothic Town Hall. Credit Klugschnacker
Wernigerode Town Hall. Credit Misburg3014
Wernigerode Town Hall. Credit Misburg3014
The market square in Wernigerode. Credit Klugschnacker
The market square in Wernigerode. Credit Klugschnacker

Please beware of the dragon—he may be only a puppy, but he can get a bit playful at times.

Wernigerode Castle dragon. Credit Mundus Gregorius, flickr
Wernigerode Castle dragon. Credit Mundus Gregorius, flickr

Oh, and don’t mind the wild boar, his squeal is worse than his bite.

Wild boar in Wernigerode Castle courtyard. Credit Mundus Gregorius, flickr
Wild boar in Wernigerode Castle courtyard. Credit Mundus Gregorius, flickr
Wernigerode Monsters. Credit Steffen Prößdorf
Wernigerode Monsters. Credit Steffen Prößdorf

Linking the little towns and villages in the Harz mountains is a steam railway.

Wernigerode narrow gauge steam railway. Credit Gerry Balding
Wernigerode narrow gauge steam railway. Credit Gerry Balding

Dense forests of oak, beech, and spruce with deep gorges and sheer cliffs characterize the dramatic landscape of the Harz Mountains.

Spruce Woods in the Harz. Credit Andreas Tille
Spruce Woods in the Harz. Credit Andreas Tille
The Harz Mountain in Central Germany. Credit ArtMechanic
The Harz Mountain in Central Germany. Credit ArtMechanic

Whatever the season, Wernigerode Castle is sure to surprise and delight history buffs and fantasy fans alike.

Wernigerode Castle. Credit schwientek
Wernigerode Castle. Credit schwientek
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Andreas Tille
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Andreas Tille
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Andreas Tille
Wernigerode Castle. Credit Andreas Tille
Sun rising behind Wernigerode Castle. Credit Tillea
Sun rising behind Wernigerode Castle. Credit Tillea

10 Fascinating Facts About Mont Saint-Michel: the Medieval City on a Rock

Rising hundreds of feet above a rocky islet amidst vast sandbanks exposed to powerful tides stands a Gothic Benedictine abbey surrounded by a medieval village.

Built between the 11th and 16th centuries, Mont St Michel is a testament to the ingenuity of man inspired by God.

It takes your breath away.

Here are 10 fascinating facts about this incredible “island city”.

For added atmosphere, play the soundtrack.

1. Mont Saint-Michel was conceived in a dream

It was 708 A.D.

One night, Bishop Aubert of Avranches had a vision.

Saint Aubert, bishop of Avranches in the 8th Century, saw in dreams Archangel Michael, who ordered him to build a sanctuary on Mount Tomb. Credit Tango7174
Saint Aubert, bishop of Avranches in the 8th Century, saw in dreams Archangel Michael, who ordered him to build a sanctuary on Mount Tomb. Credit Tango7174

The Archangel Michael, who had defeated Satan in the war in heaven, appeared in a dream and instructed Aubert to build an oratory on the rocky island at the mouth of the Couesnon river.

“build it and they will come”

Mont Saint-Michel as viewed along the Couesnon River in Normandy, France. Credit David Iliff
Mont Saint-Michel as viewed along the Couesnon River in Normandy, France. Credit David Iliff

At first, Aubert ignored the vision, until the Archangel burned a hole in his head as a gentle reminder, whispering “build it and they will come”.

And come they did—pilgrims from all Christendom, and today, tourists from all corners of the world.

Aubert’s skull is displayed at the Saint-Gervais d’Avranches basilica bearing the scar of Michael.

Mont Saint-Michel soars 302 ft towards the heavens.

Mont-Saint-Michel Aerial View. Credit Sylvain Verlaine
Mont-Saint-Michel Aerial View. Credit Sylvain Verlaine

2. Mont Saint-Michel is a structural hierarchy of feudal society

On top, there is God, then the abbey and monastery; below this, the Great halls, then stores and housing, and at the bottom, outside the walls, the fishermen’s and farmers’ housing.

Spire of the abbey on Mont Saint-Michel in Normandy France
Spire of the abbey on Mont Saint-Michel in Normandy France
Mont Saint-Michel, Street
Mont Saint-Michel, Street
Historical monuments under the villa Saint-Michel. Credit EdouardHue
Historical monuments under the villa Saint-Michel. Credit EdouardHue

3. Mont Saint-Michel was one of the most important pilgrimage destinations

Second only to Santiago de Compostela in Spain, Mont-Saint Michel was an important pilgrimage of faith during the Middle Ages.

Such was the difficulty of the journey that it became a test of penitence, sacrifice, and commitment to God to reach the Benedictine abbey.

Mont Saint Michel, Normandy by Edward William Cooke, R.A., 1838
Mont Saint-Michel. Credit Nicolas Raymond, flickr
Mont Saint-Michel. Credit Nicolas Raymond, flickr

Chosen by Richard II, Duke of Normandy, the Italian architect, William of Volpiano,  designed the Romanesque church of the abbey, daringly placing the transept crossing at the top of the mount.

Many underground crypts and chapels had to be built to compensate for this weight, forming the foundation for the supportive upward structure that we see today.

Mont Saint-Michel Abbey Church Nave. Credit Jorge Láscar, flickr

Standing separate, not linking the abbey buildings, the cloister is a place to meditate, with the fragrance of herbs, flowers, and the sea filling the air.

Mont St Michel Cloister. Credit Jorge Láscar, flickr
Mont St Michel Cloister. Credit Jorge Láscar, flickr

Nestled at the foot of the abbey in the main street, the parish church of Église Saint-Pierre (Church of St Peter) is a little gem often overlooked by visitors.

When the abbey was secularised in the 19th century, the church became the focus of the pilgrimages to Mont Saint-Michel.

Eglise Saint-Pierre du Mont Saint-Michel. Credit Jordiferrer
Eglise Saint-Pierre du Mont Saint-Michel. Credit Jordiferrer
Église Paroissiale Saint-Pierre - Mont St Michel. Credit Jorge Láscar, flickr
Église Paroissiale Saint-Pierre – Mont St Michel. Credit Jorge Láscar, flickr.

4. The English couldn’t conquer Mont Saint-Michel

During the Hundred Years’ War, the Kingdom of England made repeated assaults on the island but were unable to seize it due to the abbey’s strong fortifications.

Mont Saint-Michel, rampart and houses
Mont Saint-Michel, rampart and houses
Mont Saint-Michel Tower. Credit Nicholas Raymond, flickr
Mont Saint-Michel Tower. Credit Nicholas Raymond, flickr

Besieging the Mont in 1423–24, and then again in 1433–34, the English forces under the command of Thomas de Scales, 7th Baron Scales abandoned two wrought-iron bombards (cannon) when he gave up his siege.

Known as “les Michelettes”, they remain on site to mark the impenetrable fortress protected by God.

Cannons abandoned by Thomas Scalles at Mont Saint-Michel on 17 June 1434
Cannons abandoned by Thomas Scalles at Mont Saint-Michel on 17 June 1434

5. Mont Saint-Michel inspired Joan of Arc to victory

When news of the island’s stand against the English reached a young peasant girl in Orléans, south-west of Paris, the tide would turn against England in the Hundred Years’ War.

Statue of Joan of Arc next to the transept door of the Saint-Pierre church of Mont-Saint-Michel, Manche, France. Credit EdouardHue
Statue of Joan of Arc next to the transept door of the Saint-Pierre church of Mont-Saint-Michel, Manche, France. Credit EdouardHue

That girl was Joan of Arc, and so inspired was she at the story of resistance at Mont St Michel, she would help recapture France from the English.

Joan of Arc at the Siege of Orleans by Jules Lenepveu
Joan of Arc at the Siege of Orleans by Jules Lenepveu

6. Mont St Michel has a counterpart in Cornwall, England

In 1067, the monastery of Mont Saint-Michel gave its support to William the Conqueror in his claim to the throne of England.

St Michael's Mount, Cornwall, England. Credit Chensiyuan
St Michael’s Mount, Cornwall, England. Credit Chensiyuan

Rewarding the monastery with properties and grounds on the English side of the Channel, he included a small island off the southwestern coast of Cornwall which was modeled after the Mount and became a Norman priory named St Michael’s Mount of Penzance.

St Michael's Mount, Cornwall, England. Credit ukgardenphotos
St Michael’s Mount, Cornwall, England. Credit ukgardenphotos

The two mounts share the same tidal island characteristics and the same conical shape, though St Michael’s Mount is much smaller.

7. Mont Saint-Michel served as a prison

With its popularity and prestige as a center of pilgrimage waning during the Reformation, by the time of the French Revolution, there were very few monks in residence.

Closed in 1791, the abbey was converted into a prison, initially holding clerical opponents of the republican regime—up to 300 priests at one point.

Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel north face. Credit Ibex73
Abbey of Mont Saint-Michel north face. Credit Ibex73

Nicknamed “bastille des mers”, meaning “Bastille of the sea”, it was named after the fortress in Paris that served as a state prison during the Ancien Regime.

Serving as a windlass, a treadwheel crane helped hoist supplies high up to the prison walls.

Prisoners would rotate the wheel by walking inside it like hamsters.

Treadwheel crane served as a windlass, installed when Mont Saint-Michel was a prison, to bring supplies prisoners. Some prisoners would walk inside the wheel to rotate it. Credit Jorge Láscar
itTreadwheel crane served as a windlass, installed when Mont Saint-Michel was a prison, to bring supplies prisoners. Some prisoners would walk inside the wheel to rotate it. Credit Jorge Láscar

Treadmill cranes were commonly used for lifting heavy objects on medieval construction sites.

Life on a 13th century fortress castle construction site, showing treadmill crane
Life on a 13th century fortress castle construction site, showing treadmill crane

After a series of high profile political prisoners were held at Mont Saint-Michel, influential figures, including Victor Hugo, launched a campaign to restore what they felt was a national architectural treasure.

Closing the prison in 1863, Napoleon III ordered the 650 prisoners to be transferred to other facilities.

8. Mont Saint Michel has deadly tides

Popularly nicknamed “St. Michael in peril of the sea” by medieval pilgrims making their way across the flats, the tides can vary by as much as 46 ft between high and low water marks.

Aerial view of Mont-Saint-Michel. Credit cea +

Connected to the mainland by a modern causeway built in 2014, the tide poses dangers for visitors who choose to walk across the sands—threatened by a tide that is said to travel at the speed of a galloping horse.

Mont Saint-Michel and its new light bridge at high tide. Credit Mathias Neveling
Mont Saint-Michel and its new light bridge at high tide. Credit Mathias Neveling
People walking along the clay sands of the bay around Mont-Saint-Michel. Credit tiger rus
People walking along the clay sands of the bay around Mont-Saint-Michel. Credit tiger rus

Polderisation and occasional flooding have created salt marsh meadows that are ideally suited to grazing sheep.

Mont Saint-Michel in September morning. Credit Vlasenko
Mont Saint-Michel in September morning. Credit Vlasenko

Richly-flavored meat resulting from the sheep’s diet in the “salt meadow” makes a dish called agneau de pré-salé “salt meadow lamb”, a local specialty served on the menus of restaurants at the mount.

9. Mont Saint-Michel and its bay are UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979, Mont Saint Michel and its 11th-century Benedictine abbey have become a favored destination for pilgrims and tourists alike.

One of the most important sites of medieval Christian civilisation.UNESCO
One of the charming little restaurants in Mont St Michel. Credit Trey Ratcliff, flickr
One of the charming little restaurants in Mont St Michel. Credit Trey Ratcliff, flickr
The Streets of Mont Saint Michel. Credit Trey Ratcliff, flickr
The Streets of Mont Saint Michel. Credit Trey Ratcliff, flickr
Recommendation: Mont St. Michel should be placed on the World Heritage List because of its exceptional combination of natural and cultural elements.UNESCO, 1979
Le Mont St. Michel by night. Credit William Warby
Le Mont St. Michel by night. Credit William Warby

10. Mont Saint-Michel is a top cultural attraction

Barely bigger than its gothic abbey, the island is cut off from land twice a day at high tide and yet attracts more than 3 million visitors a year.

The Grand Rue throw Le Mont-Saint-Michel seen from above. Credit Supercarwaar
The Grand Rue throw Le Mont-Saint-Michel seen from above. Credit Supercarwaar
Mont-Saint-Michel. Credit Pethrus
Mont-Saint-Michel. Credit Pethrus
Ground floor of the hotel of the Siren of Mont-Saint-Michel. Credit Edouard Hue
Ground floor of the hotel of the Siren of Mont-Saint-Michel. Credit Edouard Hue

Enjoy the video as seen from where only a drone can go!

10 Amazing Facts About the French Medieval City of Carcassonne

The medieval walled city of Carcassonne sits in the luscious valley of the Aude river—the gap between the Pyrenees and the Massif Central.

Slate roofs glint in the sun atop 13th-century towers that dominate the horizon.

Surrounded by mountains and vineyards, the scent of pine shrubs, spicy herbs, and sweet flowers is carried on the cool winds. Known as the garrigue (gah-REEG), it is the signature scent of the south of France.

View of the medieval city of Carcassonne amongst vineyards. Photo Harry. Photo Dennis Jarvis
View of the medieval city of Carcassonne amongst vineyards. Photo Harry. Photo Dennis Jarvis

Here are 10 amazing facts about this medieval wonder that you might not know.

1. The walls of the city are 1.9 miles (3 km) long

Cité de Carcassonne. Photo erjk.amerjka
Cité de Carcassonne. Photo erjk.amerjka
Aerial view of Carcassonne. Credit Chensiyuan
Aerial view of Carcassonne. Credit Chensiyuan
The Walls of Carcassonne. Photo Vicente Villamón
The Walls of Carcassonne. Photo Vicente Villamón

2. The city walls have 52 massive towers

Towering above. Photo candi...
Towering above. Photo candi…

The fortified city has a concentric design having two outer walls with 52 towers and barbicans, designed to prevent attack by siege engines.

The shining turrets of Carcassonne. Photo Ad Meskens
The shining turrets of Carcassonne. Photo Ad Meskens

3. A Roman tower housed the Medieval Inquisition

The shallow-pitch terracotta tile roofs and red brick layers identify these towers as Roman, one of which is called “The Inquisition Tower”.

The Medieval Inquisition’s purpose was to root out and prevent the spread of Cathars and Waldensians—followers of religious movements that were denounced by the Catholic Church.

Gallo-Roman Towers of Carcassonne. Photo José Luiz
Gallo-Roman Towers of Carcassonne. Photo José Luiz
La Délivrance des emmurés de Carcassonne by Jean-Paul Laurens, 1879
La Délivrance des emmurés de Carcassonne by Jean-Paul Laurens, 1879

Extracts from a letter written around 1285 by the Consuls of Carcassonne to Jean Galand, a Dominican Inquisitor at Carcassonne, describe what conditions were like in the Inquisition Tower:

… you have created a prison called “The Wall”, which would be better called “Hell”. In it you have constructed small cells to inflict pain and to mistreat people using various types of torture. Some prisoners remain in fetters … and are unable to move. They excrete and urinate where they are … Some are placed on the chevelet ; many of them have lost the use of their limbs because of the severity of the torture … Life for them is an agony, and death a relief. Under these constraints they affirm as true what is false, preferring to die once than to be thus tortured multiple times.

4. Carcassonne was the first fortress to use hoardings in times of siege

Overhanging wooden ramparts attached to the upper walls of the fortress provided protection to defenders on the wall and allowed them to shoot arrows or drop projectiles on attackers beneath.

Two of the towers that are on the right side of the entrance. Photo Dennis Jarvis
Two of the towers that are on the right side of the entrance. Photo Dennis Jarvis
A view of eh wooden hoarding from inside the castle walls. Photo Dennis Jarvis
A view of eh wooden hoarding from inside the castle walls. Photo Dennis Jarvis

5. Edward the Black Prince failed to take the city during the Hundred Years’ War

During the 1355 Great Raid by the English in the Aquitaine–Languedoc region, Edward “the Black Prince” crippled southern France’s economy through the practice of chevauchée. This involved burning and pillaging enemy territory to reduce the region’s productivity.

When the Black Prince passed through Carcassonne, his army razed the Lower Town, but couldn’t take the extremely well defended walled city.

Carcassone’s position as a key defensive fortification on the border with Spain remained until the Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed, which effectively pushed the border further south—diminishing Carcassone’s strategic importance.

The 16-year-old Black Prince at the Battle of Crecy by Julian Russel, 1888
The 16-year-old Black Prince at the Battle of Crecy by Julian Russell Story, 1888

6. In 1849, the City of Carcassonne was nearly demolished

Not the news this Carcassonne gargoyle wanted to hear.

Carcassonne was struck off the roster of official fortifications under Napoleon and the Restoration.

It fell into such disrepair that the French government decided that it should be demolished, causing an uproar among local citizens.

Mayor of Carcassonne, Jean-Pierre Cros-Mayrevieille, and writer Prosper Mérimée, inspector of ancient monuments, led a successful campaign to preserve the walled city.

The architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc was commissioned to renovate the entire city.

Carcassonne. Photo Vicente Villamón
Carcassonne. Photo Vicente Villamón

7. The French poet Gustave Nadaud made Carcassonne famous

Cité de Carcassonne. Photo Javier Medina
Cité de Carcassonne. Photo Javier Medina

He wrote a poem about the lament of a peasant man who dreamed of seeing Carcassonne before he died, but was never able to visit. His poem inspired many others and was translated into English several times.

Carcassonne by Gustave Nadaud

8. In 1898, Pope Leo XIII upgraded Carcassonne’s Gothic Church to a Basilica

The minor Basilica is entirely inside the city walls. Famed for its stained glass windows—some of the oldest in the south of France—the Basilica of Saints Nazarius and Celsus is a national monument.

Basilica of Saint-Nazaire (11th - 14th century), the jewel of this medieval city, Carcassonne. Photo Dennis Jarvis
Basilica of Saint-Nazaire (11th – 14th century), the jewel of this medieval city, Carcassonne. Photo Dennis Jarvis
Basilica of Saint-Nazaire is noted for its stained glass windows. Photo Dennis Jarvis
Basilica of Saint-Nazaire is noted for its stained glass windows. Photo Dennis Jarvis

9. The city was named after a fairy-tale princess

In the 8th century, Carcassonne was under Saracen rule and besieged by Charlemagne’s army. Lady Carcas, a Saracen princess, fed a pig with wheat and threw it from the city walls, fooling Charlemagne into thinking the city had abundant food. Charlemagne lifted the siege, and in celebration, Lady Carcas rang the city bells. Thus, the city was named Carcassonne, meaning “Carcas rings.”

Although Lady Carcas is fictional, such oral traditions were commonplace in the 12th century and perpetuated in writing in later centuries. Similar legends link a number of historical characters in other times and places with similar ruses.

10. Carcassonne vies with Mont St Michel for the title of most visited monument in France

The citadel was restored at the end of the 19th century and in 1997 it was added to UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites.

Carcassonne Castle. Photo BrianRS1
Carcassonne Castle. Photo BrianRS1
Carcassonne bridge. Photo App1990
Carcassonne bridge. Photo App1990
Carcassonne. Photo Rhino Neal
Carcassonne. Photo Rhino Neal

References and credits
Featured image: Alain Mach
Wikipedia.org
Living in the World’s Greatest Walled Cities—Lindsey Galloway for the BBC
The Inquisition Against the Cathars of Langeudoc

Edward I – The Lord of the Ring of Welsh Castles

Edward I of England
Edward I of England

Stand on the banks of the River Conwy at night and gaze across at the floodlit Conwy Castle, its eight majestic towers rising to the heavens out of solid rock, and you get the measure of the man that was King Edward I (1239–1307).

At 6ft 2in tall, Edward towered above his contemporaries. A man to be feared, who could intimidate, but a man who earned respect as a warrior, an administrator, and a man of faith.

Nicknamed “longshanks”, meaning “long legs” or “long shins”, some historians believe his height and long limbs gave him an advantage in battle—all the better for wielding the sword.

Edward is an Anglo-Saxon name, which was unusual for a Norman aristocrat. His father, Henry III, chose the name in honor of Saint Edward the Confessor, one of the last Anglo-Saxon kings, and the only king of England to be canonized.

Could this connection with an Anglo-Saxon saint have given Edward the courage to do what none of his predecessors had been able to do: Conquer Wales?

Edward was no stranger to courage. In the Second Barons’ War (1264–1267)—a civil war between the King and several barons led by Simon de Montfort—Edward fought alongside his father and routed part of the baronial army with a cavalry charge. But he let ego get the better of him—chasing the enemy as they scattered, and leaving King Henry’s center exposed. Edward tasted defeat and was taken hostage.

The Battle of Lewes (14 May 1264)
The Battle of Lewes (14 May 1264)

A year later, in a daring plan demanding skill and bravery, Edward escaped and joined forces allied to the Crown.

He faced Simon de Montfort again on the battlefield—at the Battle of Evesham. This time, Edward’s much larger army massacred the rebellious barons, leaving Montfort’s body horribly mutilated.

As if that wasn’t enough excitement for the 24-year-old Edward, once the baron’s rebellion was completely put down and England pacified, he went on a crusade to the Holy Land.

The Ninth Crusade was the last major medieval Crusade, and overall enthusiasm for the cause was waning. Despite some impressive early victories, an epidemic, a devastating storm, and a series of failed raids caused the crusaders to withdraw, with little to show for their efforts.

Although Edward wanted to continue fighting, an assassination attempt left him weakened from a poisoned wound. When he received news of his father’s death and his own accession to the throne of England, he began the return journey—taking two whole years.

Edward I kills his attempted assassin
Edward I kills his attempted assassin

When Edward was back on English soil, trouble started brewing between the Marcher Lords (nobles guarding the English-Welsh border) and an increasingly powerful prince of Wales—Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, who refused to pay homage to Edward and was even planning to marry the daughter of Edward’s old enemy, Simon de Montfort.

Edward declared war and invaded Wales with a large army, forcing Llywelyn to surrender and stripping him of all Welsh lands, but for the far northwest corner—Gwynedd.

Within eight years, the Welsh rose up against Edward. This time, Welsh forces made good early progress with victories at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr and the Battle of Moel-y-don. But their luck didn’t hold. Edward prevailed and his conquest of Wales was complete.

The Iron Ring

Life on a 13th century fortress castle construction site, whowing treadmill crane.
Life on a 13th century fortress castle construction site, whowing treadmill crane.

To prevent further Welsh uprisings, Edward started building massive stone fortifications known as the Iron Ring—the most ambitious project of its kind in Europe. Some castles had been built by his father, which he strengthened, but his focus was building huge new fortifications in Gwynedd.

The Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd, North Wales is a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site, which includes the castles and town walls of  Caernarfon and Conwy, and the castles of Harlech and Beaumaris.

UNESCO considers the sites to be the “finest examples of late 13th-century and early 14th-century military architecture in Europe.
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Press play to add atmosphere as we journey back in time to Wales circa 1283.

Caernarfon Castle

Caernarfon Castle

“the fairest castle that man ever saw”

Built to showcase Edward’s power, Caernarfon was more palace than castle—an administrative center fit for a king.

The polygonal towers and banded colored stone give it a unique appearance compared with Edward’s other castles.

Legend holds that when Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus was out hunting one day, he rested under a tree and fell asleep. He had a dream of a fort, “the fairest that man ever saw”, at the mouth of a river in a mountainous country.

Nearby Caernarfon, a Roman fort called Segontium once stood. Edward believed it was the castle in Maximus’s dream and decided to build the fairest castle that man ever saw at the mouth of the River Seiont in the mountainous country of Wales. Caernarfon Castle is born of a dream.

Caernarfon Castle. Credit Herbert Ortner
Caernarfon Castle. Credit Herbert Ortner
Caernarfon Castle
Caernarfon Castle
Caernarfon Castle. Credit Albertistvan
Caernarfon Castle. Credit Albertistvan
Caernarfon castle in calm conditions across the Seiont river. Credit Richard Outram
Caernarfon castle in calm conditions across the Seiont river. Credit Richard Outram
Caernarfon Castle. Credit Detectordan
Caernarfon Castle. Credit Detectordan
Caernafon Kings Gate. Credit Albertistvan
Caernafon Kings Gate. Credit Albertistvan
Caernarfon Castle. Credit RevDave
Caernarfon Castle. Credit RevDave
Reconstruction of Caernarfon Castle and town walls at the end of the 13th century. Credit Hchc2009

Conwy Castle

Conwy Castle

Defended by eight towers and two barbicans, Conwy Castle sits on a coastal ridge overlooking the estuary of the River Conwy.

The castle would originally have been white-washed using a lime render. What a sight that must have been on a sunny day—a white castle shimmering in the sunlight.

Visitors entered through a barbican, complete with drawbridge and portcullis. Conwy has the oldest stone machicolations in Britain—openings through which stones, or other objects, could be dropped on attackers.

Both Caernarfon and Conwy have walled towns adjacent to the castle. This meant that the town and castle were mutually dependent on each other—the castle giving protection and the town providing trade.

Conwy Castle. Credit Ashley Perkins
Conwy Castle. Credit Ashley Perkins
Conwy Castle. Credit dbenbenn
Conwy Castle. Credit dbenbenn
Conwy Castle. Credit mattbuck
Conwy Castle. Credit mattbuck
Conwy Castle. Credit Mike Peel
Conwy Castle. Credit Mike Peel
Medieval walls surrounding the town of Conwy, Wales. Credit One lucky guy
Medieval walls surrounding the town of Conwy, Wales. Credit One lucky guy
Reconstruction of Conwy Castle and town walls at the end of the 13th century. Credit Hchc2009
Reconstruction of Conwy Castle and town walls at the end of the 13th century. Credit Hchc2009
Conwy Castle Silhouette. Credit Jon Pinder
Conwy Castle Silhouette. Credit Jon Pinder
Conwy Castle. Credit Stuart Madden
Conwy Castle. Credit Stuart Madden

Harlech Castle

Harlech Castle

Harlech Castle is built high on a rocky outcrop with a commanding view of the Irish Sea and surrounding countryside.

Its concentric design features a massive gatehouse that is thought to have provided accommodations for high-ranking visitors.

Housed within an inner wall were a great hall, chapel, granary, bakehouse and small hall.

In the 13th century, the sea came much further inland to the outer wall, which ran around the base of the outcrop, allowing the castle to be resupplied by boat during a siege.

Harlech Castle. Crown Copyright - Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales
Harlech Castle. Crown Copyright – Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales. Cadw
Harlech Castle. Credit ebel, flickr
Harlech Castle. Credit ebel, flickr
Harlech Castle. Credit Steve Rideout
Harlech Castle. Credit Steve Rideout
Harlech Castle. Credit William Warby, flickr
Harlech Castle. Credit William Warby, flickr
Harlech Castle. Credit Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri
Harlech Castle. Credit Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri
Harlech Castle. Credit Gouldy, flickr
Harlech Castle. Credit Gouldy, flickr
Harlech Castle Gatehouse. Credit Gwen Hitchcock
Harlech Castle Gatehouse. Credit Gwen Hitchcock
Harlech Castle. Credit Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri
Harlech Castle. Credit Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri
Reconstruction of the castle in the early 14th century, seen from the sea. Credit Hchc2009
Reconstruction of the castle in the early 14th century, seen from the sea, showing lime-rendered stonework. Credit Hchc2009

Beaumaris Castle

Beaumaris Castle

Setting Beaumaris apart from the other castles in the UNESCO-designated Iron Ring is its location on the Isle of Anglesey as opposed to mainland Wales.

Distinguished medieval historian Dr Arnold Joseph Taylor CBE, called Beaumaris the “most perfect example of symmetrical concentric planning” in Britain.

The massive fortifications include an outer ward (a courtyard encircled by a wall) with twelve towers and two gatehouses, protecting an inner ward with six massive towers and two enormous gatehouses.

Like Harlech, Beaumaris could also be supplied by sea in the event of a siege.

Beaumaris Castle © Crown copyright Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales.
Beaumaris Castle © Crown copyright Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales. Cadw
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Stuart
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Stuart
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Steve Collis
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Steve Collis
Beaumaris Castle. ljanderson977
Beaumaris Castle. ljanderson977
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Christopher Keslar, flickr
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Christopher Keslar, flickr
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Christopher Keslar, flickr
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Christopher Keslar, flickr
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Mike Peel
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Mike Peel
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Christopher Keslar, flickr
Beaumaris Castle. Credit Christopher Keslar, flickr
Beaumaris Castle. Credit xlibber
Beaumaris Castle. Credit xlibber

The Prince of Wales

In 1284, a baby boy was born in Caernarfon Castle—the future King Edward II.

In hopes that it would help pacify Wales, Edward I bestowed on his son the title “Prince of Wales”. As a 16th-century clergyman put it,

borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English.

To this day, the heir to the throne is titled “Prince of Wales”.

Sources

Wikipedia
Prestwich, Michael (2010), Edward I and Wales.
Maddicott, John (1994), Simon de Montfort.
Wheatley, Abigail (2010), Caernarfon Castle and its Mythology.
Powicke, F. M. (1962), The Thirteenth Century, 1216–1307.
Ashbee, Jeremy (2007), Conwy Castle.
Brooks, Richard (2015), Lewes and Evesham 1264-65; Simon de Montford and the Barons’ War.
Taylor, Arnold (2004) [1980], Beaumaris Castle (5th ed.)
cadw.gov.wales

A Brief History of Christmas Markets

Something happens at this time of year all across Northern Europe, especially in Germany.

Pretty little stalls huddle together, filled with glistening decorations, handmade figurines, and local produce.

The sounds of children’s laughter, sleigh bells, and choir singers fill the night air.

Mouth-watering aromas of sizzling bratwurst, gingerbread, and toasted almonds waft through the stalls.

Christmas market in Berlin by Franz Skarbina, 1892
Christmas market in Berlin by Franz Skarbina, 1892

The Christmas markets are here, signaling the beginning of Advent.

For centuries, Christmas markets brought cheer to weary villagers and added a touch of light and color to the long winter nights.

Our story begins in the late Middle Ages in parts of the former Holy Roman Empire.

The precursor to Christmas markets is thought to be Vienna’s Dezembermarkt (December Market), dating back to around 1296. Emperor Albrecht I granted shopkeepers the rights to hold a market for a day or two in early winter so that townspeople could stock up on supplies to last through the cold months.

Medieval Market. Credit Ironchefbalara
Medieval Market. Credit Ironchefbalara

Wintermärkte (winter markets) began to spring up all over Europe.

Over time, local families started setting up stalls to sell baskets, toys, and woodcarvings alongside others selling almonds, roasted chestnuts, and gingerbread. These were often bought as gifts to give away at Christmas.

Berlin boy from the Christmas market by Franz Skarbina, c. 1890
Berlin boy from the Christmas market by Franz Skarbina, c. 1890
Christmas market by Franz Skarbina, 1900
Christmas market by Franz Skarbina, 1900

It was the winter markets that eventually became known as Christmas Markets—the earliest of which are claimed to be in Germany: Munich in around 1310, Bautzen in 1384, and Frankfurt in 1393.

But Dresden’s Strietzelmarkt may have been the first real Christmas Market, dating from 1434.

Christmas market in Dresden, Germany. Credit
Christmas market in Dresden, Germany. Credit

Today, during the lead up to Christmas, most towns of moderate size across the German-speaking world have a Christmas market.

Several cities in the UK, US and Canada also hold Christmas markets, where visitors can enjoy traditional foods like Zwetschgenmännle (figures made of decorated dried plums), Nussknacker (carved Nutcrackers), Gebrannte Mandeln (candied, toasted almonds), and freshly-grilled Bratwurst. Favorite beverages include Glühwein (hot mulled wine) and Eierpunsch (an egg-based warm alcoholic drink).

Zwetschgenmännle (little prune people). Credit Gita22, flickr
Zwetschgenmännle (little prune people). Credit Gita22, flickr
German Christmas cookies and decorations. Credit Till Westermayer, Freiburg
German Christmas cookies and decorations. Credit Till Westermayer, Freiburg

More regional food specialties include Christstollen (Stollen), a sort of egg bread with candied fruit from Saxony, and hot Apfelwein and Frankfurter Bethmännchen from Hesse.

Many other handmade items, toys, books, Christmas tree decorations and ornaments can be found at a Christmas Market.

Christmas markets combine the charm of tradition with the excitement of an open-air marketplace. They help rekindle the enchantment of our childhood memories.

Play a little music to enhance the magic of your Christmas Market experience …

Christmas market in Rostock, Germany. Credit Carsten Pescht
Christmas market in Rostock, Germany. Credit Carsten Pescht
Christmas market in Paderborn, Germany. Credit Harald Selke
Christmas market in Paderborn, Germany. Credit Harald Selke
Christmas market in Konstanz, Germany. Credit LenDog64
Christmas market in Konstanz, Germany. Credit LenDog64
Christmas market in Jena, Thuringia, Germany. Credit Rene Schwietzke
Christmas market in Jena, Thuringia, Germany. Credit Rene Schwietzke
Christmas market in Munich, Germany
Christmas market in Munich, Germany
Christmas market in Prague, Czech Republic Credit Vlasta Juricek
Christmas market in Prague, Czech Republic Credit Vlasta Juricek
Christmas market in Munich, Germany. Credit Heather Cowper
Christmas market in Munich, Germany. Credit Heather Cowper
Christmas market in Berlin, Germany. Credit Wolfgang Scholvien
Christmas market in Berlin, Germany. Credit Wolfgang Scholvien
Christmas market in Berlin, Germany. Credit visitBerling & Wolfgang Scholvien
Christmas market in Berlin, Germany. Credit visitBerling & Wolfgang Scholvien
Christmas Market on Richardplatz
Christmas Market on Richardplatz
Christmas market in Berlin, Germany. Credit onnola
Christmas market in Berlin, Germany. Credit onnola
Christmas market at Tallinn, Estonia Credit Sergei Zjuganov
Christmas market at Tallinn, Estonia Credit Sergei Zjuganov
Christmas market in Goslar, Germany. Credit Graham Hills
Christmas market in Goslar, Germany. Credit Graham Hills
Christmas market in Krakow, Poland. Credit Garrett Ziegler
Christmas market in Krakow, Poland. Credit Garrett Ziegler
Christmas market in Warsaw, Poland. Credit Francois du Plessis
Christmas market in Warsaw, Poland. Credit Francois du Plessis
Christmas market in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. Credit francois
Christmas market in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. Credit francoisnce
Christmas market in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. Credit francois
Christmas market in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. Credit francois
Christmas market in Stuttgart, Germany. Credit blankdots
Christmas market in Stuttgart, Germany. Credit blankdots
Christmas Market in Stuttgart, Germany. Credit LenDog64
Christmas Market in Stuttgart, Germany. Credit LenDog64
Christmas market in Stockholm Old Town, Sweden
Christmas market in Stockholm Old Town, Sweden
Christmas market in Ulm, Germany. Credit Christopher
Christmas market in Ulm, Germany. Credit Christopher
Christmas market in Düsseldorf, Germany
Christmas market in Düsseldorf, Germany
Christmas Market in Luxembourg. Credit --Christophe--
Christmas Market in Luxembourg. Credit –Christophe–
Christmas market in Bath, England. Credit Rwendland
Christmas market in Bath, England. Credit Rwendland
Christmas market in Copenhagen, Denmark. Credit Judith, flickr
Christmas market in Copenhagen, Denmark. Credit Judith, flickr
Christmas market in Derby, England. Credit DncnH
Christmas market in Derby, England. Credit DncnH
Christmas market in Glasgow, Scotland. Credit byronv2
Christmas market in Glasgow, Scotland. Credit byronv2
Christmas market in Edinburgh, Scotland. Credit Ross G. Strachan
Christmas market in Edinburgh, Scotland. Credit Ross G. Strachan
Christmas market in Salisbury, England. Credit Anguskirk
Christmas market in Salisbury, England. Credit Anguskirk
Frankfurt Christmas Market in Victoria Square, Birmingham, England. Credit Anneli Salo
Frankfurt Christmas Market in Victoria Square, Birmingham, England. Credit Anneli Salo
Hyde Park Winter Wonderland Christmas Market, London, England. Credit Garry Knight
Hyde Park Winter Wonderland Christmas Market, London, England. Credit Garry Knight
Christmas market in Toronto, Canada. Credit Allen McGregor
Christmas market in Toronto, Canada. Credit Allen McGregor
Christmas Market in Denver, Colorado. Credit Paul Iwancio
Christmas Market in Denver, Colorado. Credit Paul Iwancio

The Pillars of the Earth – Inside England’s Medieval Cathedrals

From the Middle Ages until the advent of the skyscraper, Cathedrals were often the world’s tallest buildings.

In 1311, the spire of Lincoln Cathedral surpassed the height of the Great Pyramid of Giza.

They reached for the heavens to the glory of God.

Immerse yourself in the majesty of these magnificent monuments with Gregorio Allegri’s captivating Miserere mei, Deus as we take a journey inside England’s Medieval Cathedrals.

Bristol Cathedral, Bristol

A unique feature of Bristol Cathedral is its 14th-century Decorated Gothic vaulting. The short lierne ribs of the choir form beautiful stellar patterns that historian Nikolaus Pevsner called “superior to anything else in England” in terms of spatial imagination.

The nave of Bristol Cathedral looking west towards the entrance. Credit: David Iliff
The nave of Bristol Cathedral looking west towards the entrance. Credit: David Iliff
Vaulting of the choir. Credit: David Iliff
Vaulting of the choir. Credit: David Iliff

Canterbury Cathedral, Kent

One of the largest cathedrals in England, Canterbury Cathedral is famous for its 12th- and 13th-century stained glass, its perpendicular nave, the tomb of the Black Prince, and the site of St. Thomas Becket’s murder.

Canterbury Cathedral - 12th-century choir. Credit: David Iliff
Canterbury Cathedral – 12th-century choir. Credit: David Iliff
Canterbury Cathedral - The stained glass of the southern side of Trinity Chapel. Credit: David Iliff
Canterbury Cathedral – The stained glass of the southern side of Trinity Chapel. Credit: David Iliff
Canterbury Cathedral- stained glass window- detail showing miracles of healing
Canterbury Cathedral- stained glass window- detail showing miracles of healing
Canterbury Cathedral - upper half of Poor man's Bible window
Canterbury Cathedral – upper half of Poor man’s Bible window

Chester Cathedral, Cheshire

Chester Cathedral’s choir has exquisite figurative carving dating from 1380.

The building of the nave, which began in 1323, was halted by plague and not completed until 150 years later.

Chester Cathedral - Choir Stalls and Rood Screen. Credit: David Iliff
Chester Cathedral – Choir Stalls and Rood Screen. Credit: David Iliff
Chester Cathedral - The building of the nave, begun in 1323, was halted by plague and completed 150 years later. Credit: Michael Beckwith
Chester Cathedral – The nave. Credit: Michael Beckwith

Chichester Cathedral, West Sussex

Notable features include a transitional retro-choir, early Norman relief carvings and the 15th-century belfry. The spire can be seen from the English Channel.

Chichester Cathedral - The Choir looking west. Credit: David Iliff
Chichester Cathedral – The Choir looking west. Credit: David Iliff
Chichester Cathedral - The Lady Chapel. Credit: Richard Gillin
Chichester Cathedral – The Lady Chapel. Credit: Richard Gillin

Ely Cathedral, Cambridgeshire

Architecturally, Ely Cathedral is outstanding both for its scale and stylistic details. Built in a monumental Romanesque style, the galilee porch, lady chapel and choir were rebuilt in an exuberant Decorated Gothic.

One of the most important features is the central octagon built in 1322, which experts consider to be a wonder of English cathedral architecture.

The choir of Ely Cathedral, Cambridgeshire. Credit: David Iliff
The choir of Ely Cathedral, Cambridgeshire. Credit: David Iliff
The nave of Ely Cathedral, Cambridgeshire. Credit: David Iliff
The nave of Ely Cathedral, Cambridgeshire. Credit: David Iliff
Ely Cathedral - The ceiling of the nave and lantern, viewed from the Octagon. Credit: David Iliff
Ely Cathedral – The ceiling of the nave and lantern, viewed from the Octagon. Credit: David Iliff

Exeter Cathedral, Devon

A good example of the Decorated Gothic style of the 14th-century, Exeter Cathedral has the longest medieval vault in the world—running between two Norman towers built over the transepts.

Exeter Cathedral - looking east toward the organ. Credit: David Iliff
Exeter Cathedral – looking east toward the organ. Credit: David Iliff
Exeter Cathedral - The Lady Chapel. Credit: David Iliff
Exeter Cathedral – The Lady Chapel. Credit: David Iliff

Gloucester Cathedral, Gloucestershire

Massive masonry piers characterize the Norman nave, and the largest medieval window in the world is the area of a tennis court.

Gloucester Cathedral - The nave looking east toward the choir. Credit: David Iliff
Gloucester Cathedral – The nave looking east toward the choir. Credit: David Iliff
Gloucester Cathedral - The soaring stained glass windows behind the high altar. Credit: David Iliff
Gloucester Cathedral – The soaring stained glass windows behind the high altar. Credit: David Iliff

The cloisters have the earliest example of fan-vaulting, making a distinctive setting for scenes of the Harry Potter film series.

Gloucester Cathedral - Cloisters with fan vaulted roof was used as a location in the Harry Potter film series
Gloucester Cathedral – Cloisters with fan vaulted roof

Hereford Cathedral, Herefordshire

A Norman nave and large central tower with unusual north transept and porch house an important treasure—the Mappa Mundi, a medieval map of the world dating from the 13th century.

Hereford Cathedral - The nave looking west. Credit: David Iliff
Hereford Cathedral – The nave looking west. Credit: David Iliff
Hereford Cathedral - The Choir. Credit: David Iliff
Hereford Cathedral – The Choir. Credit: David Iliff

The Early English Lady Chapel is considered “one of the most beautiful of the thirteenth century”.

Hereford Cathedral - The Lady Chapel. Credit: David Iliff
Hereford Cathedral – The Lady Chapel. Credit: David Iliff

Lichfield Cathedral, Staffordshire

The only one of the cathedrals to have retained three spires, Lichfield Cathedral suffered serious damage during the English Civil War. Even though all of the stained glass was destroyed, the Lady Chapel retained some of the finest medieval Flemish painted glass in existence.

Lichfield Cathedral - The High Altar. Credit: David Iliff
Lichfield Cathedral – The High Altar. Credit: David Iliff
Lichfield Cathedral - The choir. Credit: David Iliff
Lichfield Cathedral – The choir. Credit: David Iliff

Lincoln Cathedral, Lincolnshire

The third largest in Britain, Lincoln Cathedral was reputedly the tallest building in the world for 238 years (1311–1549). The central spire collapsed in 1549 and was not rebuilt, but even so the Victorian writer John Ruskin called it “out and out the most precious piece of architecture in the British Isles and roughly speaking worth any two other cathedrals we have.”

Lincoln Cathedral - The nave looking east. Credit: David Iliff
Lincoln Cathedral – The nave looking east. Credit: David Iliff
Lincoln Cathedral - Interior view of the crossing tower. Credit: David Iliff
Lincoln Cathedral – Interior view of the crossing tower. Credit: David Iliff
Lincoln Cathedral - The choir looking west. Credit: David Iliff
Lincoln Cathedral – The choir looking west. Credit: David Iliff

Norwich Cathedral, Norfolk

Norwich Cathedral’s Norman tower surmounted by a 15th-century spire is the second tallest in England, surpassed only by Salisbury Cathedral. The spectacular vaulting has hundreds of ornately carved, painted and gilded bosses, each decorated with a theological image, and said to be without parallel in the Christian world.

Norwich Cathedral - The presbytery as viewed from the choir. Credit: David Iliff
Norwich Cathedral – The presbytery as viewed from the choir. Credit: David Iliff
Norwich Cathedral - The pulpitum. Credit: David Iliff
Norwich Cathedral – The pulpitum. Credit: David Iliff
Norwich Cathedral - The choir. Credit: David Iliff
Norwich Cathedral – The choir. Credit: David Iliff

Oxford Cathedral, Oxfordshire

One of the oldest in England, Oxford Cathedral’s 13th-century stone spire perfectly complements Oxford’s tradition as “the city of dreaming spires”. But the late-15th-century pendant vault over the Norman chancel is its most unusual feature.

Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford - The altar and vault. Credit: David Iliff
Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford – The altar and vault. Credit: David Iliff
Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford - The Choir. Credit: David Iliff
Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford – The Choir. Credit: David Iliff

Peterborough Cathedral, Cambridgeshire

Known for its imposing Early English Gothic West Front, Peterborough Cathedral’s nave has a decorated wooden ceiling which is unique in Britain and one of only four in Europe.

The structure of the building remains largely unaltered since it was completed almost 800 years ago.

Peterborough Cathedral - The choir. Credit: David Iliff
Peterborough Cathedral – The choir. Credit: David Iliff
Peterborough Cathedral - The lady chapel. Credit: David Iliff
Peterborough Cathedral – The lady chapel. Credit: David Iliff
Peterborough Cathedral - The High Altar
Peterborough Cathedral – The High Altar

Ripon Cathedral, North Yorkshire

Dating from the 7th century to 1522, Ripon Cathedral’s choir is famed for its richly carved 14th-century stalls, with many lively figures among the carvings.

Ripon Cathedral - The nave, showing a clear asymmetry in the arches. Credit: David Iliff
Ripon Cathedral – The nave, showing a clear asymmetry in the arches. Credit: David Iliff
Ripon Cathedral - The rood screen. Credit: David Iliff
Ripon Cathedral – The rood screen. Credit: David Iliff
Ripon Cathedral - The organ. Credit: David Iliff
Ripon Cathedral – The organ. Credit: David Iliff

St Albans Cathedral, Hertfordshire

St Albans is the second longest cathedral in the United Kingdom (after Winchester), but it has the longest nave. Much of the structure was built from bricks salvaged from the nearby site of an ancient Roman town called Verulamium. Medieval wall paintings and a painted wooden roof from the late 13th century are among its other attractions.

St Albans Cathedral - The Wallingford Screen of c. 1480—the statues are Victorian replacements (1884–89) of the originals, destroyed in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, when the screen itself was also damaged. Credit: David Iliff
St Albans Cathedral – The Wallingford Screen of c. 1480—the statues are Victorian replacements (1884–89) of the originals, destroyed in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, when the screen itself was also damaged. Credit: David Iliff
St Albans Cathedral - The choir. Credit: David Iliff
St Albans Cathedral – The choir. Credit: David Iliff

Salisbury Cathedral, Wiltshire

With its harmonious proportions and the tallest spire in the United Kingdon, Salisbury epitomises the English Medieval Cathedral. It houses the world’s oldest working clock (from AD 1386), and the best surviving of the four original copies of Magna Carta.

Salisbury Cathedral - The nave looking east from the font. Credit: David Iliff
Salisbury Cathedral – The nave looking east from the font. Credit: David Iliff
Salisbury Cathedral's Trinity Chapel (Lady Chapel) ceiling. Credit: David Iliff
Salisbury Cathedral’s Trinity Chapel (Lady Chapel) ceiling. Credit: David Iliff
Salisbury Cathedral - The Choir. Credit: Julian guffogg
Salisbury Cathedral – The Choir. Credit: Julian guffogg

Wells Cathedral, Somerset

Wells has been variously described as “unquestionably one of the most beautiful” and as “the most poetic” of English cathedrals.

Pure Early English Gothic of the late 12th and early 13th centuries, Wells features deeply sculpted moldings and has retained much of the original glass.

Wells Cathedral - The nave, viewed from the entrance. Credit: David Iliff
Wells Cathedral – The nave, viewed from the entrance. Credit: David Iliff
Wells Cathedral - The Chapter House. Credit: David Iliff
Wells Cathedral – The Chapter House. Credit: David Iliff
Wells Cathedral - The Lady Chapel. Credit: David Iliff
Wells Cathedral – The Lady Chapel. Credit: David Iliff

Winchester Cathedral, Hampshire

The longest medieval cathedral in the world, Winchester’s spectacular perpendicular nave has been literally carved out of the original Norman interior, with its tall arches and prominent vertical design.

Winchester features elaborate wooden carvings from many different periods as well as a magnificent stone screen behind the High Altar.

Winchester Cathedral - The nave viewed from the west looking towards the choir. Credit: David Iliff
Winchester Cathedral – The nave viewed from the west looking towards the choir. Credit: David Iliff
Winchester Cathedral - The Choir looking west. Credit: David Iliff
Winchester Cathedral – The Choir looking west. Credit: David Iliff
Winchester Cathedral - The High Altar. Credit: David Iliff
Winchester Cathedral – The High Altar. Credit: David Iliff

Worcester Cathedral, Worcestershire

Worcester Cathedral incorporates  styles from every century from the 11th to the 16th.

The earliest part of the building is the multi-columned Norman crypt, with the nave showing a unique and decorative transition between Norman and Gothic over a 200-year period.

The Cathedral chancel contains the tomb of King John.

Worcester Cathedral - The choir. Credit: David Iliff
Worcester Cathedral – The choir. Credit: David Iliff
Worcester Cathedral - The lady chapel and east window. Credit: David Iliff
Worcester Cathedral – The lady chapel and east window. Credit: David Iliff
Worcester Cathedral - The transept organ-case. Credit: David Iliff
Worcester Cathedral – The transept organ-case. Credit: David Iliff

York Minster, North Yorkshire

One of the largest of its kind in Northern Europe, York Minster has a very wide Decorated Gothic nave with the largest expanse of medieval stained glass in the world. The large central window has fine Flowing Decorated tracery called the “Heart of Yorkshire”.

Now an honorific title, “Minster” is attributed to churches established in the Anglo-Saxon period as missionary teaching churches.

York Minster - The nave of York Minster. Credit: David Iliff
York Minster – The nave of York Minster. Credit: David Iliff
York Minster - The Kings Screen and organ. Credit: David Iliff
York Minster – The Kings Screen and organ. Credit: David Iliff
York Minster - The chapter house. Credit: David Iliff
York Minster – The chapter house. Credit: David Iliff
York Minster - The Choir. Credit: David Iliff
York Minster – The Choir. Credit: David Iliff

Chivalry – the Knight’s Code of Honor

If you’re picturing a knight in shining armor rescuing a damsel in distress, you’re not alone.

Consider the 1885 Frank Dicksee painting below, simply titled “Chivalry”.

So, there we have it—chivalry is rescuing a damsel in distress. Or is there more to it?

Continue dear reader as we delve a little deeper.

Chivalry by Frank Dicksee, 1885
Chivalry by Frank Dicksee, 1885

Our story begins in the deep, dark Teutonic forests of medieval Europe, where the warrior culture of Germanic horsemen combined with Roman traditions were molded by the Church into a civilized code of conduct based on bravery, disciplined training, and service to others. By the Late Middle Ages, the Code of Chivalry had become a moral system, combining warrior ethos, knightly piety, and courtly manners.

Warrior Ethos

Knights were mounted warriors, specializing in combat within a clan-like social caste.

Fight of knights in the counry side by Eugène Delacroix, c.1824
Fight of knights in the countryside by Eugène Delacroix, c.1824

They swore allegiance to their lord or monarch as a vassal—to protect, honor, and serve as a fighter in exchange for land holdings.

And when they weren’t fighting on the battlefields, they were testing their prowess in jousting tournaments.

Illustration from Boys King Arthur by NC Wyeth
Illustration from Boys King Arthur by NC Wyeth

There was strong camaraderie and respect among knights, even to those of the enemy.

Illustration from "Scottish Chiefs" by N.C. Wyeth
Illustration from “Scottish Chiefs” by N.C. Wyeth

As prisoners of war, knights were held for ransom in relative comfort—a courtesy not extended to lower castes like archers and foot soldiers, who were usually killed.

Knightly Piety

In addition to the earthly warrior ethos, spirituality in the form of Christianity was firmly entrenched in the Chivalric Code of knights.

The Vigil by John Pettie 1884
The Vigil by John Pettie 1884

Contains Amazon affiliate links.

In Geoffroi de Charny’s Book of Chivalry, he explains the importance of Christian faith in all aspects of a Knight’s life.

It was 1095 in Clermont, France. Pope Urban II pronounced that any knight fighting for the First Crusade would be exonerated from the sin of killing.

Pope Urban II Preaching the First Crusade in the Square of Clermont by Francesco Hayez, 1835
Pope Urban II Preaching the First Crusade in the Square of Clermont by Francesco Hayez, 1835

These words were like music to knights—if they fought in the crusades, they need no longer worry about their immortal souls.

Some joined the Church as a new type of order—the Templars and Hospitallers.

But while knights believed in defending God and the Church, most had their own independent strand of piety, separate from that of the clergy.

The Faithful Knight by Thomas Jones Barker (1815 - 1882)
The Faithful Knight by Thomas Jones Barker (1815 – 1882)

Courtly Manners

The word courtesy comes from 12th-century French courteis, meaning a behavior marked by respect for others, and polished manners. Besides displays of strength, skill and piety, knights were expected to behave in a dignified manner at court—to know dining etiquette and how to hold sophisticated conversation.

The Accolade by Edmund Leighton, 1901
The Accolade by Edmund Leighton, 1901

Courtly love—known in medieval France as “fine love”—originated with troubadours, who were composers and performers of lyric poetry.

A medieval tradition of love between a knight and a married noblewoman was considered a noble passion, and typically unconsummated.

The Meeting on the Turret Stairs by Frederic William Burton, 1864
The Meeting on the Turret Stairs by Frederic William Burton, 1864

In medieval literature, stories abound of knights setting out on adventures and performing services for their ladies.

God Speed! by Edmund Blair Leighton
God Speed! by Edmund Blair Leighton

At Knight’s End

In the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights-in-armour obsolete.

The Return of the Crusader by Karl Friedrich Lessing, 1835
The Return of the Crusader by Karl Friedrich Lessing, 1835

But the memories and the legend lived on.

A Dream of the Past - Sir Isumbras at the Ford by John Everett Millais, 1857
A Dream of the Past – Sir Isumbras at the Ford by John Everett Millais, 1857

Castles of England and Wales as Victorians Saw Them

Before there was the motorcar, Victorians traveled to see castles by train and horse-drawn carriage.

There was no jostling for a parking space, no parking tickets or parking meters to worry about, no traffic noise. Just history, and the sound of the wind.

It must have been quite something.

Contains affiliate links
Listen to “Fivos Valachis” as you scroll through a wonderland of castles from a bygone time.

Aberystwyth Castle, Wales
Aberystwyth Castle, Wales
Cardiff Castle, Wales
Cardiff Castle, Wales
Caernarfon Castle, Wales
Caernarfon Castle, Wales
Chepstow Castle, Wales
Chepstow Castle, Wales
Conwy Castle, Wales
Conwy Castle, Wales
Corfe Castle, Dorset, England
Corfe Castle, Dorset, England
Denbigh Castle, Wales
Denbigh Castle, Wales
Dolbadarn Castle, Llanberis, Wales
Dolbadarn Castle, Llanberis, Wales
Dover Castle, Dover, England
Dover Castle, Dover, England
Goodrich Castle, Goodrich, England
Goodrich Castle, Goodrich, England
Harlech Castle, Wales
Harlech Castle, Wales
Kenilworth Castle, Kenilworth, England
Kenilworth Castle, Kenilworth, England
Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthen, Wales
Kidwelly Castle, Carmarthen, Wales
Pembroke Castle, Wales
Pembroke Castle, Wales
Raglan Castle, England
Raglan Castle, England
Raglan Castle, England
Raglan Castle, England
Rhuddlan Castle, Rhyl, Wales
Rhuddlan Castle, Rhyl, Wales
Skipton Castle, Yorkshire, England
Skipton Castle, Yorkshire, England
Tower of London, England
Tower of London, England
Warwick Castle, England
Warwick Castle, England

A Brief History of Toilets

The word toilet derives from the French word toile, meaning a “cloth” (toilette is a “small cloth”), that was draped over a lady or gentleman’s shoulders for hairdressing. Its use was extended to the whole process of hair and body care that centered around a dressing table with mirror, brushes, powder and make-up, during which close friends or tradesmen were often received.

The English poem The Rape of the Lock (1717) by Alexander Pope satirizes the intricacies of a lady’s toilet as she carefully prepares herself for a gala social gathering

From each she nicely culls with curious toil, And decks the Goddess with the glitt’ring spoil. This casket India’s glowing gems unlocks, And all Arabia breathes from yonder box.

Are You Sitting Comfortably?

Around 4500 years ago, communities in Scotland, the Indus Valley (present day Pakistan), and Mesopotamia used pipes to carry waste from inside of buildings to outdoors.

Toilets in Egypt used a keyhole shape to increase comfort, whilst the Romans built sewer systems to carry waste into streams and rivers.

Flushing first appeared in Knossos, on the island of Crete about 4000 years ago. Rainwater captured in rooftop pans was used to wash away waste via pipes.

Fortifying Defenses

By the Middle Ages, flushing went out of fashion. In came “garderobes”, which were closets with seats overhanging the castle moat. The waste would slide down the castle walls and hopefully be washed away … eventually. If not, it would certainly help deter invasion!

Garderobe is French for “wardrobe” and also served as a place to temporarily store the coats and other possessions of visitors. According to a description of a garderobe at Donegal Castle, people believed that the smell of ammonia would help keep fleas away.

Watch Out Below!

The British word loo is from the French guardez l’eau, meaning “watch out for the water”.  In medieval Europe, people often threw the contents of their chamber pots out the window onto the streets.  But being considerate folk, they would warn passersby by yelling “Guardez l’eau!” … at least to those they liked. In England, “Guardez l’eau” became “gardy-loo” and then shortened to “loo”.

Chamber pots could be exquisitely decorated.

Fit For The Queen

Sir John Harington (1561 – 1612) invented Britain’s first flushing toilet. Called the Ajax (“jakes” was an old slang word for toilet), he installed one at his manor in Kelston.

Harington’s design had a flush valve to release water from a tank to empty the bowl. He also gave one to Queen Elizabeth I at Richmond Palace, but it is thought she refused to use it because it was too noisy. The Ajax did not see popularity in England but was adopted in France under the name Angrez.

The term ‘John’ that’s often used in the USA is considered a direct reference to John Harington.

Flushed With Victorian Pride

George Jennings (1810 – 1882), an English sanitation engineer, invented the first public flush toilets.

He installed the “Retiring Rooms” at The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.

Jenning’s Pedestal Vase won the Gold Medal award at the International Health Exhibition in London, 1884 for its flushing capacity. In a test, its 2 gallon flush washed down:

  • 10 apples of average diameter 1 ¼ inches
  • 1 flat sponge about 4 ½ inches in diameter
  • plumber’s smudge coated over the pan
  • 4 pieces of paper adhering closely to the soiled surface

The Victorians invented ‘sanitary science’—the study of public health, dirt, and disease—and were obsessed with sewers, sanitation, and cleanliness. Why, then, did Victorian London remain so notoriously filthy? Find out here.

Interested in adding the Victorian touch to your bathroom?

In the Crapper

Returning American World War One veterans used the slang word “crapper” after seeing so many toilets in England wearing the corporate logo “T. Crapper/Chelsea”.

However, the word crap can be traced to an Old Dutch word, krappe, meaning “a vile and inedible fish”.

Toilet Trivia

Toilet Euphemisms
  • Lavatory, bog, loo, convenience, privy (UK)
  • Restroom, bathroom, pot, john (US)
  • Dunny (AU/NZ)
  • Water closet (W.C.), comfort room (C.R.), powder room
Toilets could be dangerous places
  • King Edmund II of England was “stabbed from beneath as he answered a call of nature” in 1016.
  • King George II of Great Britain met his end in the bathroom after breakfast.
  • Catherine the Great, empress of Russia  suffered a fatal stroke on a commode in St Petersburg in 1796.